INJURIOUS 
INSECTS  AND 
USEFUL  BIRDS 

BY  F.  L.WASHBURN  M.A, 


'The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  use  of  land." 

— EMERSON. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED  BY 

KARYC.  DAVIS,  PH.D.  (CORNELL) 

PROFESSOR  OF   AGRICULTURE,    KNAPP  SCHOOL   OF  COUNTRY  LIFE     GEORGE   PEABODY 

COLLEGE   FOR   TEACHERS,    NASHVILLE,   TENNESSEE;    AUTHOR   OF 

PRODUCTIVE  FARMING,    ETC. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  USEFUL  BIRDS 
SUCCESSFUL  CONTROL  OF  FARM  PESTS 

BY  F.  L.  WASHBURN,  M.A.  (HARVARD) 

PROFESSOR  OF  ENTOMOLOGY,   UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA;   ENTOMOLOGIST   TO  THE  MINNESOTA 

EXPERIMENT  STATION,  AND   STATE   ENTOMOLOGIST.      FELLOW  IN  A.  A.  A.S.,  MEMBER 

OF   AM.    ASSOC.  EC.  ENT.,  AM.  ENT.  SOC.,  AM.  SOC.  OF   NATURALISTS,  ETC. 


LIPPINCOTTS 

FARM  MANUALS 

Edited  by  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D. 


SECOND  EDITION  REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 
BY  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A. 

PROF.  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY,  ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  CANADA. 

96  illustrations.  xiii-{-j6j  pages.  $1-75  net. 

SECOND  EDITION  REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
BY  HARRY  R.  LEWIS,  B.S. 

POULTRY  HUSBAND RYMAN,  NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

330  illustrations.  xxi  +  536  pages.  $2.00  net. 

SECOND  EDITION  REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 
BY  CARL  W.  GAY,  B.S.A. 

PROF.  ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY,  CHAIRMAN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  SECTION, 

DEPARTMENT     OF     AGRICULTURE, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 

176  illustrations.  xvi  +JJJ  pages.  $1-75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  ORCHARDING 
BY  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S. 

PROF.  OF  POMOLOGY,  MASSACHUSETTS  AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE. 

157  illustrations.  xiv  -\-  314  pages.  $1.75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 
BY  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S.A. 

PROF.  OF  OLERICULTURE,  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS. 

1 94  illustrations.  xiii  -f-  339  pages.  $1-75  net. 

SECOND  EDITION   REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

BY  F.  W.  WOLL,  PH.D. 

PROF.  OF  ANIMAL  NUTRITION,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

106  illustrations.  xii  -f-  375  pages.  $l'75  net. 

SECOND  EDITION 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 
BY  R.  A.  CRAIG,  D.V.M. 

PROF.  VETERINARY  SCIENCE,  PURDUE  UNIVERSITY. 

124  illustrations.  xii  +  334  pages.  $1-75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 
BY  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  M.A. 

PROF.  OF  FARM  CROPS,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY. 

204  illustrations.  xix  +507  pages.  $1-75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING 
BY  FRANK  C.  PELLETT 

STATE  APIARIST  OF  IOWA. 

JJ5  illustrations,  '    xiv  +302  pages.  $1.75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

BY  R.  M.  WASHBURN 

PROF.  OF  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 

132  illustrations.  xii  +  432  pages.  $i-75  net- 


10 


I 


In 


L.    WOOD,    DEL. 

Plate  1. 


CUT  WORMS,  ARMY  WORMS,  AND  OTHERS. 


RIOUS  INSECTS 
USEFUL  BIRDS 

vM  Pi- 


iolo9  ni  8iioiJj;ni;Y  janiwoiia  bus 

.sra-Ba  9f(J  lo  tfooM—  .£  .jp^ 
lo  '{.iiuioiv  sdi  ni  bs^oslloo  ,8fmow-tuD  ^nsieBiG  —  .7  bnB  ,8  ,5  ^  .esi'il 


imow-tuO  ^88^10  sri  ,1  bnjs  ,6  ,8  .egi'5! 

•;/s9b  iwta 
'Jnifi1!  10  (i£[fiqi.3teO  fndsS  9iiT  —  .11  ba&  01  .831^ 

.(aineH  otoiq;  mSaajwolll) 
siii  E«  nwoojl  irr  i,<jufT  bns  dioM  tBvi^J  —  .H  baa  ,81  ,SI  .agi^ 

.(otsXiiwtyD^  oWa^)  nnow-iuO  ^gniQ 
.e.iinov  o  awsiv  dnofl  SIB  SI  brrjs  9  aaiiigfi  !o  i\el  sri.)  nO 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  I. 

Figs.  1  and  2. — Wheat-head  Army  Worm  (M.  albilinea  Hubn.),  much  enlarged, 

and  showing  variations  in  color. 
Fig.  3. — Moth  of  the  same. 
Figs.  4,  5,  6,  and  7. — Different  Cut-worms,  collected  in  the  vicinity  of  St. 

Anthony  Park,  Minn. 
Figs.  8, 9,  and  15. — Caterpillar,  Moth  and  Pupa  of  the  Glassy  Cut-worm  (Had- 

ena  devastatrix) . 
Figs.  10  and  11. — The  Zebra  Caterpillar,  or  Painted  Mamestra,  and  its  Moth 

(Mamestra  picta  Harris). 
Figs.  12,  13,  and  14. — Larva,  Moth  and  Pupa  of  the  Cut-worm  known  as  the 

Dingy  Cut-worm  (Feltia  jaculifera). 
On  the  left  of  figures  6  and  12  are  front  views  of  the  corresponding  cut-worms. 


LiPPiNCOTT's  FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  PH.D.  (CORNELL) 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS 
AND  USEFUL  BIRDS 

SUCCESSFUL  CONTROL  OF  FARM  PESTS 


BY 

F.  L.  WASHBURN,  M.A. 

PROFESSOR   OF   ENTOMOLOGY,  UNIVERSITY  OF   MINNESOTA;  ENTOMOLOGIST  TO  THE  MINNESOTA 

EXPERIMENT   STATION,   AND   STATE    ENTOMOLOGIST.       FELLOW   IN   A.  A.  A.  S.,    MEMBER 

OF   AM.   ASSOC.    EC.    ENT.,   AM.    ENT.    SOC.,   AM.   SOC.    OF    NATURALISTS,    ETC. 


414  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT 
AND  FOUR  COLORED  PLATES 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    1918 
3Y   J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


A 


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•  »••:• 


Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  £7.S..4, 


TO 

THE  INSPIRING  MEMORY 

OF  A 
LOVING  SISTER 


4055C7 


COPYRIGHT,    IQlS 
BY   J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


A 


r 


u, 


Electrotype*  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
Jhe  Washington  Sqitare  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.S.  -4, 


TO 

THE  INSPIRING  MEMORY 

OF  A 
LOVING  SISTER 


4055G7 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  has  been  written  in  the  hope  of  supplying  the  needs 
of  high  schools  where  Agriculture  is  taught,  and  of  Agricultural 
Colleges  which  demand  a  good  text-book  that  is  not  too  technical, 
and  where  the  work  embraces  a  large  field  in  which  there  is  a  call 
for  practical  information  and  suggestions.  It  is  intended  also  to 
supply  farmers,  orchardists,  vegetable  growers,  owners  of  gardens, 
and  housekeepers  with  a  reference  book  for  guidance  in  a  cam- 
paign against  injurious  insects  and  four-footed  pests  of  the  farm, 
and  to  assist  them  in  obtaining  information  about  some  of  our  more 
common  birds  in  their  relation  to  agriculture.  The  widespread 
and  growing  interest  in  this  latter  group  of  animals  is  not  to  be 
disregarded. 

The  suggestions  contained  herein  are  largely  the  results  of 
twenty-one  years  of  work  in  Economic  Entomology  on  the  part 
of  the  author.  Yet  in  so  large  a  field  one  must  of  necessity  have 
recourse  to  much  experience  not  his  own,  and  the  author  has  not 
hesitated  to  obtain  desired  information  from  many  reliable  publi- 
cations; such  as  bulletins  and  circulars  from  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  bulletins  from  the  Geneva  and  the 
Cornell  stations,  and  from  all  sections  of  the  country. 

Many  illustrations  are  from  Minnesota  State  publications. 
I  have  also  been  favored  by  the  kindness  of  others  who  have 
loaned  their  cuts.  Courtesies  of  this  kind,  which  are  hereby 
gratefully  acknowledged,  have  been  extended  by  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  P.  J. 
Parrott,  of  the  New  York  (Geneva)  station;  Dr.  G.  W.  Herrick, 
of  the  Cornell  station;  the  California  station;  Professor  G.  H. 
Dean,  of  Kansas;  C.  P.  Gillette,  of  Colorado;  R.  A.  Cooley,  of 
Montana;  W.  C.  O'Kane,  of  New  Hampshire;  H.  A.  Morgan,  of 
Tennessee;  W.  E.  Britton,  of  Connecticut;  and  the  Ohio  station. 
For  figures  324  and  326  the  author  is  indebted  to  the  "Country 
Gentleman."  Some  illustrations  of  spraying  apparatus  were  ob- 
tained from  the  Barnes  Company  and  the  Goulds  Manufacturing 
Company.  The  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company  furnished  some  of  the 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

originals  for  electrotypes,  and  have  at  all  times  given  the  author 
most  courteous  treatment.  To  the  Macmillan  Company,  pub- 
lishers of  "The  Citizen  Bird,"  and  the  artist,  L.  A.  Fuertes,  the 
author  is  indebted  for  most  of  the  excellent  illustrations  of  birds. 
The  three  colored  plates  of  birds  and  the  colored  plate  of  insects 
were  made  under  my  direction.  I  am  much  indebted  to  the  editor 
for  his  painstaking  effort  in  connection  with  this  volume. 


F.  L.  WASHBURN. 


STATE  ENTOMOLOGIST'S  OFFICE, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA, 

January,  1918. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Loss  TO  AGRICULTURE  DUE  TO  INSECTS  AND  RODENTS 1 

II.  FARM  PRACTICES  TO  LESSEN  INSECT  AND  RODENT  INJURIES.  ....  5 

III.  EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS;  ORDERS;  METAMORPHOSIS.  .  .  11 

IV.  COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 25 

V.  INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 40 

VI.  FUMIGATION 61 

VII.  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 68 

VIII.  INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  PEAR  AND  QUINCE 108 

IX.  PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 113 

X.  INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 133 

XI.  PRINCIPAL  INSECTS  AFFECTING  CITRUS  FRUITS 173 

XII.  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS  AND  PASTURAGE 185 

XIII.  INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS  AND  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  226 

XIV.  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  GREENHOUSE   AND  HOUSE  PLANTS,  AND  OF 

THE  FLOWER  GARDEN : 252 

XV.  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 260 

XVI.  INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  THE  HOUSEHOLD 291 

XVII.  INSECTS  AND  INSECT-LIKE    ANIMALS    ATTACKING    STOCK    AND 

POULTRY 314 

XVIII.  MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS  AND  MILL  FUMIGATION 345 

XIX.  OUR  INSECT  FRIENDS 364 

XX.  THE  RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 372 

XXI.  SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 413 

INDEX  .  .  437 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

COLORED  PLATES 

PAGE 

J.  Cut- worms,  Army  Worms  and  Others Frontispiece 

II.  Some  Useful  Birds 374 

III.  Some  Useful  Birds 382 

IV.  Some  Useful  Birds 383 

TEXT  CUTS 

1.  Codling    Moth  (Enlarged) 1 

2.  Our  Forests  Invite  Insect  Attack 2 

3.  Destruction  of  Wheat  Field  by  Hessian  I'ly 3 

4.  Shocks  of  Corn  Afford  Shelter  for  Meld  Mice  in  Winter 5 

5.  A  Weedy  Fence  Row 6 

6.  Breeding  Place  of  Fruit  Tree  Bark  Beetles 7 

7.  Orchard  Trees  Covered  with  a  Dormant  Spray 8 

8.  Dissection  of  a  Locust  or  Grasshopper  According  to  Body  Divisions  .  12 

9.  Surface  View  of  the  Facets  of  a  Compound  Eye  (Enlarged) 13 

10.  Two  Types  of  the  Last  Tarsal  Joint 13 

11.  A  "Silver  Fish"  or  "Fish  Moth." 15 

12.  May-flies 15 

13.  Ant-lion  with  Larva  (Enlarged  and  Natural  Size) 16 

14.  A  Caddis-fly  and  Stages  of  its  Metamorphosis 16 

15.  Dragon  Fly;  Nymph;  Pupal  Skin 17 

16.  Earwig,  with  Wings  Expanded 18 

17.  A  Female  Earwig  (Enlarged) 18 

18.  Specimen  of  Thrips 18 

19.  Locust 19 

20.  A  True  Grasshopper 19 

21.  A  Katydid  Laying  Eggs 19 

22.  Walking-stick 19 

23.  A  Ground  Beetle 20 

24.  A  Buprestid  Beetle 20 

25.  Hornets  and  Their  Metamorphosis 21 

26.  A  True  Bug 22 

27.  House-fly 22 

28.  Parsley  Butterfly  (Male  and  Female) 23 

29.  A  Small  Moth 23 

30.  A  Chrysalis 23 

31.  Small  Forceps 25 

32.  Home-made  Cyanide  Bottle 26 

33.  An  Elaborate  Killing  Bottle 26 

34.  A  Convenient  Collecting  Net 27 

35.  Method  of  Handling  Butterflies  in  Net 28 

30.  Spacing  Block 29 

37.  The  Proper  Way  to  Pin  a  Grasshopper 29 

38.  A  Bee  Properly  Pinned 29 

39.  The  Proper  Way  to  Pin  a  Beetle 29 

40.  A  True  Bug  Correctly  Pinned 30 

xi 


xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

41.  Labels,  Showing  Species  and  Locality 30 

42.  Spreading  Board 30 

43.  Microscopic  Insects  Mounted  on  Pith  Blocks 30 

44.  Microscopic  Insect  Mounted  on  Cardboard  Point 31 

45.  A  Punch  for  Making  Points 31 

46.  Forceps  for  Pinning  Insects 31 

47.  Heavy  Pinning  Forceps 31 

48.  Glass  Slide  with  Labels 32 

49.  Watchmaker's  Glass 32 

50.  Hand  Lens 32 

51.  Stand  for  Bottles 33 

52.  A  Comstock  Bottle 33 

53.  Home-made  Apparatus  for  Inflating  Larvae 34 

54.  A  More  Expensive  Apparatus  for  Inflating  Larva) 34 

55.  An  Inflated  Larva 34 

56.  Simple  Form  of  Breeding  Cage 35 

57.  Home-made  Breeding  Jar 35 

58.  Corn  Growing  Between  Two  Glass  Plates 35 

59.  Moist  Chamber  for  Relaxing  Dried  Specimens 35 

60.  A  Schmidt  Insect  Box 36 

61.  A  Naphthaline  Cone 37 

62.  Mailing  Box  for  Vials 37 

63.  Showing  Method  of  Making  Envelopes  for  Butterflies 38 

64.  A  Card  Index  and  Container 38 

65.  Good  Paris  Green  Under  Microscope 41 

66.  Poor  Paris  Green  Under  Microscope 41 

67.  A  Hand  Dust  Sprayer  at  Work 47 

68.  A  Large  Dust  Sprayer 48 

69.  A  Lantern  Trap 49 

70.  Working  Against  Grasshoppers  with  a  "Hopperdozer" 50 

71.  Removing  Dead  Grasshoppers  from  the  "  Hopperdozer  " 51 

72.  Bucket  Pump 52 

73.  A  Knapsack  Sprayer 52 

74.  A  Barrel  Spray  Pump 52 

75.  Another  Style  of  Barrel  Pump 53 

76.  A  Third  Style  of  Barrel  Pump 53 

77.  Double-acting  Pump 53 

78.  Barrel  Pump  with  Cart 54 

79.  A  Serviceable  Outfit 55 

80.  A  Home-made  Tower 55 

81.  Outfit  for  Power  Spraying 56 

82.  Three-row  Sprayer  at  Work 56 

83.  Bamboo  Extension 57 

84.  Nozzles 58 

85.  Double  Bordeaux  Nozzle 58 

86.  Double  Vermorel  Nozzle 58 

87.  Collection  of  Nozzles 58 

88.  Different  Types  of  Nozzles 59 

89.  Diagram  of  Greenhouse  with  Equilateral  Roof 64 

90.  Diagram  of  Greenhouse  with  Roof  Having  Unequal  Sides 65 

91.  Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer 68 

92.  Round-headed  Apple-tree  Borer 69 

93.  San  Jose"  Scale 71 

94.  Oyster  Shell  Scale - 72 

95.  Scurfy  Scale 73 

96.  Buffalo  Tree-hopper 74 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

97.  Branches  of  Apple  Tree  Broken  by  Overbearing. 75 

98.  Woolly  Aphis  on  Branch  of  Young  Apple 76 

99.  Woolly  Aphis,  Root  Form 77 

100.  New  York  Weevil 78 

101.  American  Tent  Caterpillar 79 

102.  Egg  Mass  of  American  Tent  Caterpillar 80 

103.  American  Tent  Caterpillars  Just  Hatched 81 

104.  Forest  Tent  Caterpillar 82 

105.  Forest  Tent  Caterpillars  Crowded  Together  on  Bark 83 

106.  Apple  Leaf-hopper 85 

107.  Tarnished  Plant  Bug 85 

108.  Basswood  Defoliated  by  Fall  Canker-worm 88 

109.  Fall  Canker-worm 89 

110.  Red-humped  Apple  Tree  Caterpillar 90 

111.  Yellow-necked  Apple  Tree  Caterpillar 91 

112.  Cecropia  Moth 92 

113.  Cecropia  Cocoon 93 

114.  Polyphemus  Moth 94 

115.  Caterpillar  of  Polyphemus  Moth 94 

116.  A  Leaf-roller 95 

117.  Larva  of  Leaf-roller 95 

118.  Work  of  Leaf-roller 95 

119.  Apples  Scarred  and  Deformed  by  Leaf-rollers 96 

120.  Oblique  Banded  Leaf-roller 97 

121.  Apple-leaf  Skeletonizer 97 

122.  Codling  Moth  (Enlarged) 100 

123.  Codling  Moth  Larva  (Enlarged) 100 

124.  Showing  Time  for  First  Spraying  for  Codling  Moth 101 

125.  Spraying  for  Codling  Moth 102 

126.  Blossoms  from  Which  the  Petals  have  Fallen 103 

127.  Plum  Curculio 104 

128.  The  Apple  Curculio 104 

129.  Apple  Maggot  Fly 105 

130.  Burrows  of  Apple  Maggot 105 

131.  The  Indian  Euphoria 106 

132.  Pear  Psylla 109 

133.  Blister  Mite  (Enlarged) 110 

134.  Pear  Blight  Beetle Ill 

135.  Galleries  of  Pear  Blight  Beetle  in  Poplar  Twig Ill 

136.  Peach  Tree  Borer 114 

137.  Fruit  Bark-beetle 114 

138.  Peach-tree  Bark-beetle 115 

139.  Exit  Holes  Made  by  Adult  Peach-tree  Bark-beetles 116 

140.  Divaricated  Buprestis. 117 

141.  Lecanium  Scale  on  Plum 117 

142.  Work  of  Plum  Gall  Mite 118 

143.  Plum-tree  Sphinx 119 

144.  Plum-tree  Catacola 120 

145.  Plum  Gouger 121 

146.  Plum  Curculio 122 

147.  The  Peach  Twig-borer 124 

148.  Peaches  Suffering  from  Attacks  of  Tree-crickets 126 

149.  The  Southern  June-beetle 127 

150.  Dog-day  Cicada 128 

151.  Cherry  Slug  on  Leaf 129 

152.  Aphis  sorbi 130 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

153.  Cherry-leaf  Beetle 131 

154.  Strawberry  Crown-borer 133 

155.  Strawberry  Root-louse 134 

156.  Strawberry  Leaf-roller 136 

157.  Raspberry  Root-borer;  Blackberry  Crown-borer 139 

158.  Red-necked  Cane-borer 140 

159.  A  Snowy  Tree-cricket 141 

160.  Eggs  of  a  Snowy  Tree-cricket 141 

161.  Snowy  Tree-cricket 142 

162.  Hatching  of  a  Tree-cricket 143 

163.  Long-horned  Prominent  Moth 145 

164.  The  Raspberry  Byturus 145 

165.  The  Currant  Borer 146 

166.  Imported  Currant  Worm 147 

167.  The  Four-lined  Leaf-bug 148 

168.  Currant  Leaves  Infested  with  Lice 149 

169.  Spiny  Currant  Caterpillar 151 

170.  Gooseberry  Fruit  Worm 152 

171.  Currants  Injured  by  Gooseberry  Fruit  Worm 153 

172.  Different  Stages  of  Grape-root  Worm 154 

173.  The  Grape-vine  Flea-beetle 156 

174.  Different  Stages  of  Grape  Cane-borer 157 

175.  The  Rose-chafer 158 

176.  Grape-vine  Phylloxera 159 

177.  The  "Yellow  Bear"  Caterpillar 160 

178.  Hog  Caterpillar  of  the  Grape 161 

179.  Sphinx  Moth 163 

180.  The  American  Procris 164 

181.  A  Grape-vine  Leaf-hopper 165 

182.  Eight-spotted  Forester 166 

183.  Larva)  of  Eight-spotted  Forester 167 

184.  Grape  Curculio 168 

185.  Grape-berry  Moth 168 

186.  The  Yellow  Cranberry  Worm 170 

187.  The  Cranberry  Leaf-roller 170 

188.  The  Cranberry  Fruit-worm 171 

189.  The  Cranberry  Weevil 171 

190.  Red  Scale 173 

191.  Black  Scale 174 

192.  Broad  Scale 175 

193.  Cottony  Cushion  Scale 175 

194.  Purple  Scale 176 

195.  Long  Scale 176 

.196.  Circular  Scale 177 

197.  Orange  Infested  with  Greedy  Scale 178 

198.  Mealy  Bugs  on  Orange 178 

199.  Larva  of  Cresphontes  Butterfly 179 

200.  Cresphontes  Butterfly 180 

201.  Work  of  Thrips  on  Oranges 181 

202.  The  Cotton  Stainer 182 

203.  The  Angular-winged  Katydid 183 

204.  Hessian  Fly  on  Wheat  Plant  (Enlarged) 185 

205.  Puparia  of  Hessian  Fly  in  Infested  Wheat  Stems 186 

206.  Wheat-stem  Maggot 188 

207.  The  "Green  Bug" 189 

208.  The  "Green  Bug,"  Winged  Migrant  Form 189 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

209.  Frit-fly 190 

210.  The  Wheat-head  Army  Worm '. 191 

211.  Diseased  Chinch  Bug 192 

212.  A  Grasshopper  Ovipositing 193 

213.  Details  of  Construction  of  Hopperdozer 194 

214.  Spraying  for  Grasshoppers 195 

215.  Alfalfa-seed  Chalcis  My 197 

216.  A  Blister  Beetle 199 

217.  The  Corn  Leaf-aphis 202 

218.  The  Sugar-cane  Beetle 203 

219.  The  Western  Corn-root  Worm 204 

220.  The  Erratic  Army  Worm 205 

221.  Wire  Worm  and  "Click  Beetle" 206 

222.  Wire  Worms 207 

223.  Two  Different  Species  of  Corn  Bill  Bugs -. 209 

224.  Details  of  Injury  to  Corn  Plant  by  Bill  Bugs 210 

225.  May  Beetle  or  "June  Bug" 211 

226.  Eggs  of  May  Beetle 212 

227.  The  Onion  Maggot 213 

228.  Tritoxa  flexa 213 

229.  Hop-plant  Louse 214 

230.  The  Rice  Water-weevil 216 

231.  TheSo-called  "Suck  Fly" 219 

232.  Cotton  Boll-weevil 222 

233.  Cotton  Plant  in  Advanced  Stage  of  Infestation  by  Hod  Spider 223 

234.  A  Severe  Example  of  Red-spider  Work  in  Cotton  Field 224 

235.  Portable  Barrel  Pump  for  Spraying  Weeds 224 

236.  The  Colorado  Potato  Beetle 227 

237.  External  View  of  Potato,  Showing  Work  of  Potato- tuber  Moth.. . .  228 

238.  Work  of  Potato-tuber  Moth 228 

239.  Stages  of  the  Imported  Cabbage  Butterfly 230 

240.  Cabbage  Maggot 231 

241.  Cabbage  Maggot  Fly,  Female  (Enlarged) 232 

242.  Work  of  Cabbage  Maggot 233 

243.  Tarred  Paper  Disks  Applied  to  Plants 234 

244.  The  Harlequin  Cabbage  Bug 236 

245.  The  Striped  Flea-beetle 236 

246.  The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle 237 

247.  Melon  Leaves  Curled  by  Attack  of  Lice 239 

248.  The  Cucumber  Flea-beetle 240 

249.  The  Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica,  Different  Stages 241 

250.  Squash  Bug 242 

251.  The  Bean  Maggot  Fly 243 

252.  Bean  Weevil  and  Pea  Weevil 244 

253.  The  Asparagus  Beetle 246 

254.  The  Destructive  Mealy  Bug 252 

255.  The  Mealy  Bug  with  Long  Threads,  Male 253 

256.  The  Mealy  Bug  with  Long  Threads,  Female 253 

257.  White  Scale 254 

258.  Common  Black  Ant 256 

259.  Tip  of  Golden  Glow  Plant,  Wilting  as  Result  of  Attack  of  Stalk  Borer  257 

260.  Moth  of  one  of  the  Stalk  Borers 258 

261.  Box-elder  Bug 261 

262.  Insect-made  Galls  on  Box  Elder 262 

263.  Imperfect  Galls  on  Leaves  of  Maple 263 

264.  Fly  Raised  from  Galls  on  Maple 263 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

375.  A  Grasshopper  Killed  by  a  Fungus .371 

376.  Cat-bird 375 

377.  Brown  Thrush 376 

378.  Wood  Thrush 378 

379.  Wilson  Thrush  or  Veery 379 

380.  Chickadee 381 

381.  House  Wren 382 

382.  Myrtle  Warbler 383 

383.  American  Redstart 384 

384.  Northern  Shrike  or  Butcher  Bird 387 

385.  Bobolink 391 

386.  Red-winged  Blackbird 392 

387.  Whippoorwill 394 

388.  Night  Hawk 395 

389.  Belted  Kingfisher 396 

390.  Downy  Woodpecker 397 

391.  Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker 398 

392.  Great  Horned  Owl 400 

393.  Virginia  Quail  or  Bob  White 401 

394.  Mourning  Dove 402 

395.  Golden  Plover 403 

396.  Barn  Swallow , 404 

397.  Flicker,  Golden-winged  Woodpecker,  or  Yellow-hammer 405 

398.  The  Common  Tern 40l> 

399.  A  Cottontail  Rabbit 414 

400.  Nest  of  Young  Rabbits 415 

401.  Apple  Tree  Protected  by  Wire  Screen 417 

402.  Tree  Guard  Made  of  Wood  Veneer 417 

403.  A  Tree  "Bridge-grafted".  . 418 

404.  Pocket  Gopher 419 

405.  Outline  of  Head  of  Pocket  Gopher 420 

406.  An  Effective  but  Unsafe  Gopher  Gun 420 

407.  Diagram  of  Burrow  of  Pocket  Gopher 421 

408.  Thirteen-lined  Ground  Squirrel,  or  "Striped  Gopher" 422 

409.  Gray  Ground  Squirrel  or  "Gray  Gopher" 

410.  Another  Species  of  Ground  Squirrel 423 

411.  The  Common  Mole 424 

412.  A  Successful  Mole  Trap 425 

413.  Field  Mice 426 

414.  Woodchuck .431 

A  hair  line  in  connection  with  a  figure  indicates  the  natural  size  of  the 
insect. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 
AND  USEFUL   BIRDS 


CHAPTER  I 

LOSS  TO  AGRICULTURE  DUE  TO  INSECTS  AND 
RODENTS 

INSECTS  comprise  fully  four-fifths  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
Nearly  400,000  species  have  been  named  and  described,  and  an 
enormous  number,  several  millions,  are  probably  in  existence. 
Deciduous  fruit  interests  lose,  according  to  Quaintance,  over 
$66,000,000  annually  through  the  work  of  insects.  The  Mexican 
Cotton  Boll  Weevil  in  Texas  alone  has  caused  a  loss  of  $25,000,000 
annually,  and  when  all  southern  states  which  produce  cotton  are 
infested  with  this  insect,  the  country  will  lose  $250,000,000  every 
year.  In  1906  our  hay  crop  was  valued  at  $600,000,000,  but 
might  have  been  $60,000,000  more  had 
it  not  been  for  the  inroads  made  by  in- 
sects. About  $150,000,000  is  sacrificed 
every  year  to  the  Hessian  fly,  and 
between  the  years  1894  and  1909  the 
chinch  bug  destroyed  $350,000,000  worth 
of  crop.  The  codling  moth  (Fig.  1)  alone 
levies  an  annual  tax  in  the  United 
States  of  $12,000,000.  FlG'  l-Codl™*  moth>  enlar*ed- 

Farm  and  forest  products  (Fig.  2)  each  year  in  the  United 
States  probably  average  more  than  $8,000,000,000,  and  these  same 
products  suffer  a  loss  annually  of  $900,000,000,  approximately, 
through  the  attacks  of  insects.  Of  this  the  wheat  crop  alone  suffers 
a  loss  each  year  of  about  $100,000,000.  In  1908  a  cut-worm, 
attacking  corn  over  a  limited  area  in  Indiana,  caused  a  loss  to  that 
crop  of  $200,000.  The  work  of  cattle  ticks  entails  a  loss  of  from 
$40,000,000  to  $100,000,000  each  year.  Briefly,  about  ten  per 
cent  of  all  of  our  crops  are  sacrificed  every  year  to  insect  ravages. 

The  work  of  the  economic  entomologists  is  to  restore  to  the 
agricultural  classes  as  much  as  possible  of  this  loss,  and,  by  their 

1 


TO  AGRICULTURE 


WORK  OF  ECONOMIC  ENTOMOLOGISTS  3 

researches,  to  place  citizens  on  their  guard  against  insect  enemies. 
That  their  work  is  appreciated  is  shown  by  the  large  appropria- 
tions for  this  work  made  by  federal  and  state  governments.  Massa- 
chusetts, for  example,  has  used,  in  the  past,  $150,000  annually  to 
combat  the  gipsy  moth,  to  which  must  be  added  approximately 
$100,000  spent  by  private  citizens  in  that  state  and  $10,000  con- 


FIG.  3. — A  portion  of  a  wheat  field  badly  "down"  as  a  result  of  the  work  of  the  Hessian  fly 

(Original.) 

tributed  by  the  United  States  Government.  New  Jersey  is  on 
record  as  spending  $350,000  a  year  in  fighting  mosquitoes  alone. 
Losses  from  the  San  Jose  scale,  codling  moth,  Hessian  fly  (see 
Fig.  3),  chinch  bugs,  and  grasshoppers  have  been  materially  re- 
duced through  the  work  of  our  entomologists,  who  have  also 
lessened  by  nearly  or  quite  half  the  $100,000,000  loss  on  stored 


4  LOSS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

products,  such  as  mill  stuffs,  fruit,  cotton,  woollens,  etc.,  suffered 
each  year  in  the  United  States. 

Squirrels,  gophers,  and  prairie  dogs  destroy  every  year  some- 
thing like  $10,000,000  worth  of  agricultural  products.  In  the 
winter  of  1901-1902  nurserymen  near  Rochester,  New  York,  sus- 
tained a  loss  of  $100,000  through  the  work  of  field  mice.  In 
the  case  of  prairie  dogs,  conservative  estimates  place  the  annual 
loss  in  Nebraska,  due  to  this  rodent,  at  $80,000,  and  ground 
squirrels  in  one  ranch  in  Nevada,  in  one  season,  caused  a  loss  to 
the  grain  crop  of  $10,000. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  losses  have  been  sustained  by  farmers  in  your  neighborhood,  caused 

by  grain  insects? 

2.  What  injury  have  you  seen  done  to  trees  by  insects? 

3.  Are  there  any  valuable  forest  areas  in  your  state? 

4.  Have  they  been  injured  by  insect  pests? 

5.  What  is  your  state  doing  to  protect  its  forest  areas? 

6.  What  orchard  insects  are  troublesome  in  your  vicinity  arid  what  is  being 

done  to  combat  them? 


CHAPTER  II 

FARM  PRACTICES  TO  LESSEN  INSECT  AND  RODENT 

INJURIES 

MODERN  methods  in  farming  have  much  to  do  with  the  con- 
trol of  farm  pests.  Fall  plowing  and  the  use  of  tooth  and  disk 
harrows  are  helpful  in  destroying  or  exposing  to  their  enemies  such 
insects  as  pass  the  winter  in  the  ground.  In  parts  of  the  country 
where  it  is  practical,  summer  fallowing,  by  keeping  down  all  weeds, 
starves  out  insects  which  normally  would  feed  upon  them. 

Cleaning   Up   in   Autumn. — Corn   shocks   afford   hibernating 

quarters  (Fig.  4)  for  chinch  bugs  and  field  mice;  and  cabbage  and 

___.  -  .„ -,,-~ 


FIG.  4. — Shocks  of  corn  left  in  the  field  over  winter  afford  shelters  for  chinch  bugs  and  field 

mice. 

cauliflower  stalks — melancholy  objects  in  the  field — harbor  the 
pupae  of  cabbage  maggots  over  winter;  old  melon  and  cucumber 
vines  may  afford  retreats  for  insects  infesting  cucurbits,  and  volun- 
teer plants  and  weeds,  both  along  fence  rows  (Fig.  5)  and  in  other 
places,  add  to  the  number  of  Hessian  flies,  chinch  bugs,  joint  worms, 
field  mice  and  other  pests.  Clean  farming,  therefore,  which  means 
the  cleaning  up  and  destruction  by  burning  of  this  rubbish,  should 
be  the  rule.  A  neglected  orchard  is  a  breeding  place  for  scale  and 
borers;  broken  branches,  dead  or  dying,  invite  the  presence  of 
hosts  of  minute  beetles  which  bore  in  bark  and  wood  (see  Fig.  6). 

5 


6 


FARM  PRACTICES  TO  LESSEN  INJURIES 


The  modern  orchardist  does  not  permit  these  things  to  exist,  and 
in  his  orchard  there  is  to  be  found  no  tangle  of  matted  grass  to 
afford  a  hibernating  place  for  mice  and  countless  insects.  Intelli- 
gent pruning  will  not  only  shape  a  tree,  but  the  burning  of  the 
branches  cut  will  destroy  many  eggs  of  aphids  and  of  other  insects. 
Systematic  spraying  of  trees  with  the  proper  compounds  is  a 
necessity  for  one  who  would  produce  marketable  fruit,  and  fre- 
quently protects  an  orchard,  not  only  against  insects  which  eat 
the  leaf  and  fruit,  but  against  other  pests  as  well  (Fig.  7). 


FIG.  5. — A  weedy  fence  row  harbors  many  insect  pests.     (Bull.  77,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

Early  mulching  of  trees  or  of  any  crop  should  be  avoided,  for 
field  mice  that  work  all  winter  look,  in  the  fall,  before  freezing 
occurs,  for  snug  nesting  places  for  the  winter. 

A  field  of  timothy  which  has  been  in  sod  for  a  number  of  years 
is  likely  to  become  infested  with  army  worms.  Intelligent  rota- 
tion, therefore,  is  practiced  to-day  by  the  wide-awake  farmer,  care 
being  taken  not  to  follow  one  crop  with  another  equally  as  attract- 
ive to  the  insect  he  seeks  to  exterminate. 

Sod  land  is  the  natural  abode  of  wire  worms  and  cut-worms, 
and  corn  or  grain  or  some  truck  crops  following  sod  are  likely  to 
be  injured. 


SOD  LAND 


FIG.  6. — Branches  left  lying  on  the  ground  under  a  top-worked  tree.     The  fruit  tree  bark 
beetles  breed  in  these  branches.     (After  Brooks,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


FARM  PRACTICES  TO  LESSEN  INJURIES 


Early  or  late  planting  of  certain  crops  may  result  in  these 
escaping  injury;  for  example,  from  the  cotton  boll  worm,  Hessian 
fly  and  others.  The  early  cutting  of  clover  leaves  the  second 
crop  less  subject  to  injury  from  the  Clover-seed  chalcid. 

Heavy  fertilization  or  intensive  cultivation,  or  both,  may  so 
force  a  crop  as  to  enable  it  to  outgrow  insect  injury. 

Resistant  Plants. — The  grower  may  also  buy  resistant  stock — 
fruit  trees  on  roots  resistant  to  borers — or  he  may  plant  strong 

~]  stemmed  wheat  which  will  not 
!  readily  break  as  the  result  of 
Hessian  fly  injury.  Occasion- 
ally a  choice  in  varieties  will 
help,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
strawberry  weevil,  which 
attacks  only  staminate  varie- 
ties of  berries. 

Protection  of  all  birds 
known  to  be  useful,  and 
judicious  treatment  of  those 
thought  to  be  injurious  should 
be  the  program  of  a  wide- 
awake farmer,  and  one  should 
be  cautious  in  condemning  any 
bird,  since  an  injurious  trait 
may  be  a  temporary  one,  due 
to  unusual  conditions,  and  may 
be  more  than  balanced  by  a 
bird's  good  qualities  exercised 
at  another  season.  One  should, 
in  particular,  hold  the  right 
attitude  toward  hawks  and 
owls — a  group  formerly  re- 
garded with  unjust  suspicion.  With  the  exception  of  Coopers 
Hawk,  and  at  times  other  large  hawks  regarded  as  "hen  hawks/' 
and  the  sharp-shinned  hawk  which  feeds  largely  on  small  birds, 
all  of  the  hawks  and  owls  are  more  or  less  useful,  some  of  them 
decidedly  so,  since  they  feed  upon  insects,  field  mice,  gophers, 
rabbits  and  ground  squirrels  (see  Chapter  XX). 

It  is  believed  that  the  large  increase  in  field  mice  in  parts  of 
the  Middle  West  may  be  accounted  for  very  largely  by  the  war  of 
destruction  waged  against  hawks  and  owls,  and  animals  such  as 


FIG.  7. — Portion  of  an  orchard  showing 
trees  well  covered  with  a  dormant  spray. 
(Dean,  in  Kansas  Bull.) 


COOPERATION 

le  common  skunk,  weasels,  and  foxes.  The  natural  food  of  the 
skunk  is  not  chickens  or  eggs,  but  insects,  mice,  and  young  rabbits. 
A  weasel,  having  acquired  the  habit,  may  at  times  kill  poultry; 
yet  normally  they  eat  meadow  mice,  rabbits,  and  squirrels. 
Foxes — occasional  depredators — cannot  injure  chickens  which  are 
properly  housed  at  night.  In  the  open,  they  feed  upon  rabbits, 
chipmunks,  field  mice,  crickets,  grasshoppers,  white  grubs,  and 
May  beetles.  The  ruffed  grouse  and  the  quail,  also,  suffer  through 
their  attacks. 

Hogs  in  an  orchard  pick  up  wormy  windfalls;  and  hogs  or 
sheep,  or  both,  turned  into  an  insect-infested  field  after  crops  are 
removed,  are  helps  to  the  orchardist  and  agriculturist.  Neglect 
of  active  measures  at  the  beginning  of  an  attack  frequently  means 
loss;  plant  lice,  for  example,  increase  with  marvellous  rapidity, 
and  individuals  should  be  destroyed  by  thorough  treatment  at  the 
very  beginning  of  their  work. 

Certain  questions,  however,  should  present  themselves  to  the 
thoughtful  farmer  or  orchardist  before  attacking  an  insect  which  is 
apparently  causing  him  a  loss.  He  should  first  of  all  ask  himself 
whether  the  insect  in  question  is  really  the  cause  of  the  injury 
observed;  secondly,  is  its  attack  lasting,  thus  making  it  necessary 
to  take  action,  or  is  it  temporary  and  not  of  great  importance? 
thirdly,  is  the  insect  subject  to  attacks  from  birds  or  predaceous 
or  parasitic  insects  (not  always  readily  determined)  which  will 
make  it  unnecessary  for  one  to  wage  war  upon  it?  and,  finally,  if 
its  extermination  is  practical,  which  is  the  best  and  most  economi- 
cal way  to  attack  it? — is  it  a  sucking  insect  or  one  which  eats  the 
surface  of  the  plant?  If  it  is  a  sucking  insect,  employment  of  in- 
ternal poisons,  like  arsenic,  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead,  would 
be  absolutely  useless. 

Stop  Rodents  in  Time. — One  pocket  gopher,  in  a  nursery  or 
young  orchard,  may,  by  working  on  roots,  put  many  trees  out  of 
commission.  This  can  be  prevented  by  early  attention.  Mice 
and  rabbits,  in  situations  subject  to  their  presence,  will  in  winter 
work  havoc  on  unprotected  young  apple  trees. 

Cooperation. — Finally,  there  should  exist  in  a  farm  community 
a  spirit  of  cooperation  in  up-to-date  farming  methods  and  in 
general  protection  which  spells  success  in  agriculture.  One 
farmer's  effort  against  grasshoppers  or  Hessian  flies  is  of  little  avail 
if  his  neighbors  are  not  equally  active.  A  striving  to  attain  a 
certain  high  standard  of  excellence  on  the  part  of  all  members  of 


10  FARM  PRACTICES  TO  LESSEN  INJURIES 

a  farming  community  should  replace  efforts  on  the  part  of  indi- 
viduals to  excel  their  neighbors.  Attention  to  the  precept  of  gen- 
eral helpfulness  means  success  for  every  individual. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss,  in  general,  modern  methods  of  farming  which  tend  to  discourage 

the  activities  of  insect  pests  and  injurious  rodents. 

2.  What  points  in  farm  practice  are  to  be  avoided  by  an  up-to-date  farmer? 

3.  What  relation  to  the  farmers'  interests  is  borne  by  skunks,  owls,  hawks? 

4.  What  questions  would  naturally  present  themselves  to  a  farmer  before 

taking  action  against  an  insect? 

5.  Discuss  the  value  of  cooperation  among  farmers  as  it  applies  to  fighting 

insect  pests. 


CHAPTER  III 

EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS;   ORDERS; 
METAMORPHOSIS 

ONE  Branch  or  Phylum  of  the  animal  kingdom  is  called  Arthro- 
poda  ("jointed-footed")  and  includes  all  animals  without  a  back- 
bone, which  have  segmented  bodies,  some  or  all  of  the  body 
segments  bearing  jointed  appendages  of  various  kinds.  Some  of 
these  animals  live  in  water  or  moist  places,  are  covered  with  a  shelly 
crust,  and  are  called  Crustacea — the  crayfish,  lobster  and  crab,  and 
barnacles,  for  example. 

Most  of  the  other  sub-groups  under  this  Phylum  live  on 
land,  when  adult.  But  some  are  worm-like,  with  many  legs,  the 
centipedes  and  millipeds,  class  Myriapoda;  and  some  have  the  head 
and  thorax  (second  division  of  the  body)  in  one  piece,  and  have  in 
the  adult  stage  eight  legs.  This  group  includes  the  scorpions,  mites, 
ticks,  and  spiders. 

The  Class  Insecta  or  Hexapoda  ("six-legged")  includes  all  the 
insects,  and  if  we  were  asked  to  give  in  a  brief  way  the  character- 
istics which  would  include  all  insects,  and  exclude  all  other  animals, 
we  would  say: 

Insects  are  Arthropods,  which  in  the  adult  stage  have  six  legs  and 
no  more:  they  breathe  air  directly  through  a  system  of  tubes  (trachece) 
opening  on  the  surface.  In  their  life  history  they  pass  through,  from 
the  egg  stage  to  the  adult,  more  or  less  changes  or  metamorphoses:  they 
have  one  pair  of  antenna  (feelers),  two  compound  eyes,  and  frequently 
one  or  more  simple  eyes.  They  generally  have  wings  in  the  adult 
stage  (Fig.  8). 

Differences  among  Insects. — It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that 
neither  a  spider  nor  a  tick  is  an  insect.  In  looking  over  this  enor- 
mous class,  comprising  at  least  four-fifths  of  all  known  species  of 
animals,  we  note  that  there  are  some  great  differences  between 
them;  a  squash  bug  is  widely  different  from  a  butterfly,  though 
agreeing  with  it  in  the  above  general  characteristics,  and  a  beetle 
does  not  resemble  a  mosquito.  Hence  the  class  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  groups  called  Orders  (see  page  14).  These  Orders  are 
largely  characterized  by  differences  in  mouth  parts  and  in  the 
nature  and  number  of  the  wings  when  present.  The  mouth  parts 

11 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS 


in  the  typical  insect,  intended  for  biting,  may  be  modified  to  form 
a  sucking  apparatus,  the  maxillae  and  mandibles  being  lengthened 
and  frequently  enclosed  in  a  sheath  formed  by  the  labium. 

The  stages  of  an  insect's  life  are  commonly  the  egg  stage,  the 
larval  stage,  the  pupal  or  resting  stage,  and  the  adult  or  imago. 
In  insects  without  a  complete  metamorphosis,  the  larval  and  pupal 
stages  are  both  active,  and  frequently  referred  to  as  the  nymphal 
stage,  or  "the  nymph."  All  growth  during  an  insect's  life  occurs 
in  the  larval  or  nymph  stage,  and  is  accompanied  by  several 
moultings  of  the  larval  skin.  Each  moult  is  called  an  "ecdysis." 


Kyea  — 
1st  pair  of  Legs  •'— 

1st  pair  of  Wings  — •• 
2nd  pair  of  Leg9  — 


2nd  pair  of  Wings  -.-—... 


3rd  pair  of  Legs 


Thorns 


Abdomen 


Tibia  

Tarsus  •«»• 1 

FIG.   8. — Dissection  of  a  locust  or  grasshopper  to  show  divisions  of  the  body. 

The  parts  of  a  typical  insect  consist  of  a  head,  thorax,  and 
abdomen. 

The  head  bears  antennae,  a  pair  of  large  compound  eyes  (see 
Figs.  8  and  9),  and  a  few  simple  eyes.  On  the  under  side  of  the 
head  occur  the  mouth  parts,  viz.,  the  labrum,  then  a  pair  of  strong 
mandibles;  following  these  a  pair  of  maxillce,  each  with  palp  at- 
tached, and  lastly  the  labium  and  labial  palps.  These  typical 
structures  are,  as  intimated  above,  modified  in  some  of  the  orders  ; 
in  fact,  they  are  to  a  certain  extent  the  fundamental  cause  of  some 
of  the  groups  given  below.  These  variations  adapt  the  possessors 


SPECIAL  SENSES  13 

to  their  different  modes  of  life.  In  the  sucking  forms,  such  as 
mosquitoes  and  squash  bugs,  the  insects  suck  the  blood  of  animals 
or  the  juice  of  plants,  piercing  the  surface  with  the  mouth  parts. 

The  thorax  or  middle  part  of  a  typical  insect's  body  really  con- 
sists of  three  sub-parts:  the  prothorax,  bearing  the  front  pair  of  legs; 
the  mesothorax,  bearing  the  front  pair  of  wings  and  second  pair  of 
legs,  and  the  metathorax,  from  which  spring  the  hind  pair  of  legs 
and  posterior  pair  of  wings  (Fig.  8) . 

The  leg  of  a  typical  insect  consists  of  the  following  joints:  a 
small  globular  joint  next  to  the  body  called  coxa,  then  a  long  joint, 
generally  the  larger,  called  the  femur*  then  a  slender,  long  joint 
known  as  the  tibia,  and  finally  the  tarsus,  consisting  typically  of 
five  joints,  the  last  bearing  two  tiny  claws.  Between  these  claws 
is  a  pad-like  appendage  called  the  pulvillus  (Fig.  10). 


FIG.  9. — Surface  view  of  the  facets  of  a  FIG.   10. — Two  types  of  the  last  tarsal 

compound  eye,  much  enlarged.  joint.    The  pulvillusin  figure  on  right  is  pad- 

like;  in  the  figure  on  left  it  is  represented 
by  a  bristle. 

The  abdomen. — Behind  the  thorax  is  the  abdomen  of  a  vary- 
ing number  of  segments.  On  the  sides  of  the  abdomen  and  the 
sides  of  the  thorax  occur  the  spiracles,  openings  leading  into  the 
trachea!  system  through  which  the  adult  insect  obtains  its  supply 
of  oxygen.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  insects  will  live  a  long 
time  without  oxygen.  The  posterior  end  of  the  abdomen  may 
exhibit  appendages,  notably  the  ovipositor  in  the  female  grass- 
hopper or  the  sting  (modified  ovipositor)  in  wasps  or  worker  bees. 

The  hard,  outer  part  of  an  insect's  body  (called  exoskeleton) 
is  composed  of  a  horny  substance,  called  chitin. 

Special  Senses. — The  sense  of  sight  in  insects  is  probably  very 
primitive,  as  are  also  the  other  special  senses.  The  sense  of  hearing 
exists  in  pits  in  the  antennae,  or  in  special  organs  on  the  first  seg- 
ment of  the  abdomen,  or  in  the  tibice  of  some  Orthoptera.  That 
insects  can  hear  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  we  find  sound-produc- 
ing mechanisms,  which  would  not  exist  unless  there  also  existed  the 
means  of  hearing  the  same.  The  sense  of  smell  is  located  in  olfac- 

*A  very  small  segment,  sometimes  well  marked,  between  coxa  and  femur, 
is  called  the  trochanter. 


14  EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS 

tory  pits  in  and  on  papillae  or  the  antennae.  The  function  of  taste 
is  located  in  some  of  the  mouth  parts,  and  minute  hairs  on  the  body 
are  connected  with  nerve  endings  within  and  form  part  of  a  mechan- 
ism affording  a  delicate  sense  of  feeling.  The  sense  of  touch  is 
doubtless  most  highly  developed  in  the  antennae,  hence  these  are 
often  called  the  "feelers." 

Reproduction  in  Insects. — The  two  primary  forces  directing 
animal  life  are  the  need  of  nutrition  and  the  instinct  of  reproduc- 
tion. Normally  we  find  among  insects,  as  in  many  other  animals, 
mating  and  egg-laying,  the  egg  hatching  and  producing  the  larva 
which  later  gives  rise  to  the  pupa. 

Agamic  Reproduction. — In  a  few  forms,  however,  notably 
among  the  plant  lice,  we  have  agamic  reproduction,  that  is, 
several  generations  produced  without  mating,  and  the  phenomenon 
is  so  striking  and  at  such  variance  to  the  rule  that  we  give  here  a 
brief  outline  of  reproduction  of  plant  lice,  which,  in  a  general  way, 
is  similar  in  practically  all  of  the  genera. 

From  an  egg  which  has  passed  the  winter  on  the  favorite  food 
plant  of  a  species,  there  hatches  in  the  spring  a  female  called  the 
"stem-mother."  This  insect  in  a  few  days  gives  birth  directly  to 
other  females;  each  one  in  its  turn  does  the  same,  averaging  five 
or  six  young  a  day  for  several  days  before  the  mother's  activity  is 
ended  by  death.  This  process,  known  as  parthenogenesis,  endures 
throughout  the  summer.  During  the  summer  and  particularly 
towards  fall  winged  females  are  born  called  "migrants,"  who  fly 
to  other  parts  of  the  tree  or  plant,  or  to  other  trees  and  plants,  and 
start  new  colonies.  In  the  fall,  true  sexual  males  and  females  ap- 
pear, mate,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  which  produce  the  stem-mothers 
in  the  following  spring.  The  enormous  number  of  descendants 
resulting  in  the  autumn  from  even  the  one  stem-mother  can  be 
estimated  approximately,  and  one  can  readily  realize  how  destruc- 
tive plant  lice  may  be  and  how  difficult  to  exterminate. 

ORDERS   OF   INSECTS 

As  already  stated,  the  class  Insecta  is  divided  into  a  number  of 
main  divisions  called  orders.  Entomologists  recognize  nineteen 
of  the  main  orders,  besides  several  sub-orders.  These  orders 
are  here  briefly  described. 

Order  Thysanura. — Wingless  insects  without  metamorphosis, 
the  larval  form  being  retained  by  the  adult.  True  compound  eyes 
rarely  present.  Examples,  fish  moth  and  spring  tails — the  former 


ORDERS  OF  INSECTS 


15 


(Fig.  11)  a  household  pest,  and  the  latter  minute  and  occurring  in 
swarms  in  moist  situations. 

Order  Ephemerida. — This  includes  the  delicate  May  flies  so 
abundant  in  spring  and  early  summer.  They  have  four  delicate 
wings,  and  live  but  a  short  time  as  adults.  The  young  stage, 
nymph,  is  found  in  the  water  (Fig.  12). 

Order  Neuroptera. — This  group  is  characterized  by  the  pres- 
ence of  four  delicately  veined  wings.  Representatives  of  the  order 
are  the  Golden-eyed  Lace-winged  fly,  whose  larva  consumes  plant 


FIG.    11. — -A  "silver  fish 
or  "fish  moth." 


FIG.  12. —  May-flies.      Nymph  and  imago 
in  foreground. 


lice,  and  the  "ant-lion, "  whose  larva  digs  pits  in  sandy  soil, wherein 
it  lies  in  wait  for  other  insects  (Fig.  13). 

Order  Mecoptera. — A  very  small  group  containing  the  scorpion 
flies. 

Order  Trichoptera. — Caddis-flies  or  Caddis-worms.  Four- 
winged  with  a  complete  metamorphosis.  The  larvse  construct 
cases  of  sand,  gravel,  and  frequently  of  leaves,  etc.  In  these  cases 
they  pass  their  larval  life,  crawling  about  on  the  beds  or  bottoms 
of  streams.  The  mouth  parts  of  the  adult  are  rudimentary  (Fig.  14). 

Order  Odonata. — The  dragon  flies  and  damsel  flies,  with  four 
wings  of  nearly  equal  size,  biting  mouth  parts,  and  large  compound 


16 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS 


eyes.     The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete.     The  larval  or  nymph 
stage  is  passed  in  the  water  (Fig.  15). 

Order  Plecoptera. — Insects  with  four  membranous  wings,  hind 


FIG.   13. — Ant-lion  with  larva,  enlarged  and  natural  size. 

wings  much  larger  than  fore  wings,  and  when  not  in  use  folded  in 
plaits.  Wings  lie  flat  upon  the  abdomen  when  the  insect  is  at  rest. 
Biting  mouth  parts  frequently  poorly  developed.  Metamorphosis 
incomplete,  nymphs  living  in  water.  Example,  stone  flies. 


NA* 


FIG.  14. — A  caddis-fly,  showing  c,  larva,  removed  from  its  case;  b,  adult;  e,  pupa.      On  the 
right  is  a  case  made  of  stems. 

Order  Isoptera. — Social  insects,  colonies  including  queens, 
kings,  and  workers,  only  the  first  two  casts  being  winged,  and  then 
only  temporarily.  Mouth  parts  formed  for  biting;  incomplete 


ORDERS  OF  INSECTS 


17 


metamorphosis.  Example,  white  ants  or  termites  (these  must  not 
be  confused  with  true  ants). 

Order  Corrodentia. — Small  four-winged  insects;  biting  mouth 
parts;  incomplete  metamorphosis.  Winged  species  feed  upon 
lichens.  A  well-known  wingless  form  is  the  tiny  book  louse. 

Order  Mallophaga. — The  so-called  bird  lice  (not  true  lice, 
which  are  sucking  insects),  feeding  upon  feathers  on  birds  and  fur 
on  mammals;  wingless  parasites  with  biting  mouth  parts;  meta- 
morphosis incomplete. 

Order  Euplexoptera. — Earwigs  found  in  the  South  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast;  rare  in  northeastern  United  States.  The  name  ear- 


FIG.   15. — Dragon  fly:  below,  nymph;  on  left,  pupal  skin. 

wig  is  given  them  because  of  a  popular  and  erroneous  belief  that 
they  creep  into  the  ears  of  people  when  asleep.  The  wings  are 
rudimentary.  Posteriorly  the  abdomen  has  a  pair  of  appendages 
resembling  forceps.  The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete  (Figs.  16 
and  17). 

Order  Thysanoptera. — (Thrips.)  Minute  four-winged  insects. 
Many  are  especially  injurious  to  agriculture.  The  mouth  parts 
are  evidently  used  for  sucking.  The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 
Some  species  can  be  found  by  pulling  apart  blossoms  of  clover  or 
daisies  (Fig.  18). 

Order    Orthoptera     ("straight- winged"). — Here    occur    the 

2 


18 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS 


locusts,  which  we  commonly  call  grasshoppers  (Fig.  19),  the  true 
grasshoppers  (Fig.  20),  and  katydids  (Fig.  21);  crickets,  "walking- 
sticks"  (Fig.  22),  and  cockroaches.  These  insects  have,  for  the 
most  part,  four  wings,  the  foremost  pair  being  really  wing  covers, 
or  tegmina;  the  second  pair  are  thin  and  gauzy,  the  mouth  parts 
are  formed  for  biting,  and  the  metamorphosis  is  incomplete.  The 


FIG.  16. — Earwig  with  wings  FIG.  17. — Upper  figure,  fe- 

expanded.  male  earwig;  below,    end    of 

abdomen    of  male,    showing 

appendages.       Both      much 

enlarged. 


FIG. 


18. — A     specimen 
thrips. 


of 


grasshoppers,  locusts,  crickets  and  katydids  have  hind  legs  adapted 
for  jumping.  This  order  is  at  times  very  injurious;  the  Rocky 
Mountain  locust  or  grasshopper,  which  normally  lays  its  eggs  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Rockies,  frequently  breeds  on  the  plains  east  of 
there,  and  has  at  times  swept  down  upon  portions  of  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Dakota,  Minnesota  and  other  states,  leaving  no  living 


FIG.   19. — A  locust,  commonly  called  grasshopper. 


Fiu.   20. — A  true  grasshopper. 


\ 


FIG.   21. — A  katydid  laying  eggs. 


FIG.  22. — A  walking-stick. 


20 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS 


plant  behind  it.  Locusts  and  grasshoppers  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
soil,  and  fall  plowing  generally  serves  to  keep  our  native  forms  in 
check. 

Order  Coleoptera  ("sheath-winged"). — This  name  refers  to 
the  fact  that  the  insects  of  this  group  have  the  fore  wings  hardened 
and  horny,  or  modified  to  form  covers  for  the  second  pair  of  wings, 
the  true  wings,  when  they  are  present.  They  have  biting  mouth 

parts,  and  a  complete 
metamorphosis.  The 
group  includes  the 
beetles.  The  potato 
beetle  (" potato  bug"), 
most  of  our  wood 
borers,  the  May  beetle 
which  comes  from  the 
white  grub,  blister 


FIG.   23. — A  ground  beetle. 


FIG.   24.— A  buprestid  beetle. 


beetles,  plum  curculio,  weevils,  and  many  others  occur  here  (Figs. 
23  and  24). 

Order  Hymenoptera  ("membrane- winged"). — Members  of  this 
group  of  insects  have  four  membranous  wings  with  but  few  veins 
therein.  The  front  wings  are  the  larger.  Mouth  parts  adapted  for 
biting  and  sucking.  The  abdomen  of  the  female  is  usually  fur- 


msl 

cor 

clu< 


ORDERS  OF  INSECTS 


nished  with  a  sting,  piercer  or  "saw."  The  metamorphosis  is 
complete  (Fig.  25). 

The  honey-bee  is  a  good  example  of  this  order,  which  also  in- 
cludes the  true  ants,  the  wasps,  hornets,  and  sawflies.  A  large 
number  of  parasites  which  attack  injurious  forms  of  insects  are 
also  found  here. 

Order  Hemiptera. — This  order  includes  all  the  plant  lice,  the 
true  parasitic  lice,  all  the  scale  insects,  and  the  true  bugs  (Fig.  26). 
The  name  Hemiptera,  which  means  " half-winged,"  is  given  the 
entire  order  because  the  anterior  half  of  the  first  pair  of  wings  in 


FIG.   25. — Hornets,  with  larva,  pupa  and  cells. 

the  true  bugs  is  thickened,  only  the  posterior  part  being  wing-like. 
The  mouth  parts  are  formed  for  sucking,  and  they  have  an  incom- 
plete metamorphosis.  This  is  probably  our  most  destructive  order, 
for  here  occur  scale  insects,  plant  lice,  leaf  hoppers  and  tree  hop- 
pers, squash  bugs,  Cicadids  or  harvest  flies,  and  the  true  lice  which 
affect  man  and  animals.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  word 
"bug,"  which  is  frequently  employed  to  designate  any  insect,  is 
rightfully  applied  only  to  that  division  of  the  Hemiptera  which 
are  "half -winged,"  sub-order  Heteroptera. 

Sub-order  Homoptera.— Scale  insects,  plant  lice  and  mealy  bugs 
belong  to  the  sub-order  Homoptera.  At  some  stage  these  have 
gauze-like  wings. 


22 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS 


Order  Diptera  ("two-winged").— These  are  the  true  flies,  such 
as  the  house-fly,  mosquito,  horse  flies,  etc.,  characterized  by  the 
possession  of  only  two  wings,  the  second  pair  being  represented  by 
a  pair  of  small  knobbed  projections,  the  halteres  or  balancers;  they 
have  mouth  parts  adapted  for  sucking,  lapping  or  stabbing.  They 
have  a  complete  metamorphosis,  the  larva  being  referred  to  as  a 
"  maggot,"  and  the  pupa  or  resting  stage  is  enclosed  in  a  brown 
skin  called  puparium.  Figure  27  illustrates  a  type  of  the  order. 

Order  Siphonaptera. — These  are  wingless,  degraded  insects, 
with  no  compound  eyes,  but  having  a  complete  metamorphosis. 
The  mouth  parts  are  adapted  for  sucking.  Here  occur  the  dog  and 
cat  flea,  human  flea,  and  others. 


FIG.  26.— A  true  bug. 


FIG.   27. — House-fly  on  lump  of  sugar. 
(After  Brues.) 


Order  Lepidoptera  ("scale-winged"). — The  butterflies,  moths 
and  skippers  are  characterized  by  the  presence  of  four  wings,  cov- 
ered with  tiny  scales  which  easily  rub  off  if  the  insect  is  handled 
roughly.  To  these  minute  scales  is  due  the  color  of  the  wings. 
The  mouth  parts  of  these  insects  are  modified  for  sucking.  They 
have  a  complete  metamorphosis.  The  larva  is  spoken  of  as  a 
"caterpillar,"  and  tent  caterpillars  and  cut- worms  are  familiar 
objects  in  the  country.  Caterpillars  have  six  true  legs,  and  a 
varying  number  of  temporary  fleshy  projections  called  "pro-legs," 
or  "prop-legs."  The  moths  are  generally,  but  not  always,  night 
fliers;  their  antennae  are  usually  either  thread-like  or  feather-like. 
When  at  rest  they  rarely  hold  their  wings  elevated  as  do  butter- 
flies. The  skippers  are  day  fliers,  and  dart  rapidly  from  place  to 


ORDER  OF  INSECTS 


FIG.  2j. — The  parsley  butterfly,  male  above,  female  below;  caterpillars  also  shown. 


Fia.  29. — A  small  moth. 


FIG.  30.— A  chrysalis.     (After  Riley.) 


24  EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS 

place.  Butterflies  (Fig.  28)  are  day  fliers;  their  antennae  or  feelers 
are  thread-like,  with  a  knob  on  the  end.  Injurious  forms  in  this 
order  are  the  codling  moth  (Fig.  29),  currant  borer,  cut- worms, 
army  worm,  and  others.  The  pupal  stage  of  butterflies  is  naked 
and  called  a  "chrysalis"  (Fig.  30).  The  pupa  of  a  moth  is 
inclosed  either  in  a  silken  cocoon  or  in  a  cell  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 

Other  Groups. — Insects  in  an  order  are  divided  into  families; 
each  family  is  divided  into  genera;  each  genus  into  species,  and  we 
frequently  have  varieties  of  a  species.  These  groups  and  sub- 
groups are  used  in  classification. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  place  of  insects  in  the  animal  kingdom? 

2.  Give  a  comprehensive  definition  of  an  insect. 

3.  Name  the  three  parts  of  an  insect's  body.  Does  each  part  bear  appendages? 

4.  Name  mouth  parts  of  typical  insects  in  order  of  their  occurrence,  beginning 

with  the  most  anterior. 

5.  Are  they  the  same  in  all  insects? 

6.  What  are  the  parts  of  an  insect's  leg? 

7.  Are  all  of  the  legs  alike  in  the  grasshopper? 

8.  Compare  the  legs  of  a  caterpillar  with  those  of  a  moth  or  butterfly,  which 

produces  the  caterpillar. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  a  "pro-leg"  or  a  "prop-leg"? 

10.  What  insects  fly?    Name  a  few  which  never  fly.    Do  beetles  fly? 

11.  Give,  in  general,  the  life  history  of  a  butterfly. 

12.  Of  plant  lice. 

13.  Name  the  orders  of  insects  and  give  example  or  examples  under  each  order. 

14.  Describe    complete   and   incomplete   metamorphosis   in   insects.      Give 
.     examples. 

15.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  pupal  stage  of  a  moth  and  that  of  a 

butterfly? 

16.  How  does  an  insect  see,  feel,  smell,  and  hear? 

17.  Name,  in  proper  order,  the  divisions  and  sub-divisions  used  in  classifying 

insects. 


CHAPTER  IV 
COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 

THE  young  collector  has  probably  provided  himself  or  herself 
with  some  insect  pins  and  some  sheet  cork,  which  can  be  pur- 
chased for  a  small  sum  from  retail  dealers,  though  he  can  substitute 
slices  of  cork  stoppers  for  his  sheet  cork,  or  pith  from  corn  stalks, 
or  corrugated  paste-board  packing,  at  no  expense  whatever,  gluing 
the  same  to  the  bottom  of  a  cigar  box.  Good  insect  pins  of  various 
sizes  he  can  hardly  get  along  without  if  he  purposes  to  pin  his 
specimens.  The  late  spring  and  summer  months  naturally  offer 
the  best  opportunities  for  collecting. 

When  he  goes  into  the  field  he  should  take  a  good  insect  net, 
one  or  two  cyanide  bottles,  a  few  vials  for  holding  delicate  insects 
(some  vials  half  full  of  alcohol  for  killing  larvae),  and  some  paper 
pill  boxes,  or  tin  salve  boxes.  These  and  the  vials  will  hold  living 
larvae,  which  the  collector  may  desire  to  take  home.  A  pair  of 


FIG.  31. — Small  forceps. 

forceps  (Fig.  31)  is  not  necessary,  but  sometimes  very  convenient 
in  handling  very  small  insects  and  those  that  sting.  A  box  (cigar 
box  will  do)  and  some  envelopes  or  folded  papers  are  desirable  to 
safely  hold  butterflies  with  wings  folded  until  the  return  home. 

A  cyanide  bottle  (Fig.  32)  is  made  by  placing  two  or  three 
small  pieces  of  cyanide  of  potassium,*  pieces  to  be  a  little  bigger 
than  peas,  or  one  large  piece,  in  the  bottom  of  a  large-mouthed 
vial,  and  covering  the  same  with  plaster  of  Paris,  to  which  water 
has  first  been  added.  This  mixture  should  be  of  such  consistency 
that  it  will  just  pour  into  the  bottle,  covering  the  cyanide  half  an 
inch.  Leave  the  bottle  open  for  a  few  hours  until  the  plaster  is 
set.  If  liquid  gathers  on  the  top  of  the  plaster,  dust  in  more  dry 
plaster,  and  later  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  can  be  placed  over  the 
plaster  to  absorb  moisture,  and  occasionally  removed.  As  cyanide 
of  potash  is  deadly  poison,  it  is  well  to  put  the  word  "POISON" 
on  the  bottle.  A  tight  cork  should  be  provided,  and  care  should 

*Or  sodium  cyanide,  if  easier  to  obtain. 

25 


26 


COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 


be  taken  not  to  leave  the  bottle  open,  after  it  is  in  use,  for  any 
length  of  time,  lest  it  should  lose  its  strength.  A  very  useful  style 
of  bottle  is  shown  in  figure  33.  This  is  provided  at  one  end  with 
a  metal  cap,  which  can  be  removed,  and  either  cyanide  or  chloro- 
form placed  on  cotton  in  the  lower  end.  A  small  straight-side  vial 
made  into  a  cyanide  bottle  is  useful  for  very  small  insects,  and  takes 
up  but  little  room  in  the  pocket.  In  fact,  one  should  take  more 
than  one  cyanide  bottle  into  the  field  to  forestall  any  accident 
which  might  befall  one,  and  to  have  one  to  use  before  insects  are 


Fia.  32. — Home-made  cyanide  bottle. 


FIG.   33. — A  more  elaborate  killing  bottle. 


dead  in  the  other.  It  is  well  to  leave  specimens,  except  delicate 
moths,  over  night  in  the  cyanide  bottle,  or  at  least  for  several 
hours.  Strips  of  paper  in  a  cyanide  bottle  prevent  undue  rattling 
about  of  insects,  and  serve  to  absorb  injurious  moisture. 

A  serviceable  net  can  be  made  out  of  mosquito  bar  (or,  better, 
of  bobbinet),  strung  on  a  wire  hoop  fastened  to  a  pole  about  five 
feet  long.  It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  fasten  a  narrow  strip  of  cloth 
to  the  wire  hoop,  and  sew  the  net  to  that.  Better  nets  and  jointed 
poles  can  be  purchased.  Figure  34  shows  a  folding  net,  which  can 
be  packed  in  a  small  space.  One  may  prefer  a  net  which  tapers 


KILLING  SPECIAL   INSECTS  27 

considerably,  but  not  to  a  point.  Some  insects  are  best  caught 
when  they  are  on  the  wing;  others  should  be  allowed  to  alight.  A 
quick  pass  is  made  with  the  net,  forcing  the  butterfly  or  moth,  or 
grasshopper,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  bottom,  and  a  turn  of  the 
wrist  folds  the  net  upon  itself,  preventing  the  captive  from  escap- 
ing. In  sweeping  for  grass  or  clover  insects,  the  net  is  passed  back 
and  forth  as  one  walks  along,  striking  the  tops  of  the  plants,  and 
by  its  continued  and  rapid  motion  the  captured  specimens  are 
kept  safely  in  the  bottom  of  the  net  until  the  collector  stops,  when 
a  rapid  turn  doubles  the  net  and  holds  all  the  contained  insects 
securely.  In  beating  brush  or  shrubbery  a  "beating  net,"  made  of 
stout  cloth,  is  used. 


FIG.   34. — A  convenient  collecting  net. 

Killing  Special  Insects. — The  writer  sometimes  lulls  stinging 
insects  to  unconsciousness  by  placing  the  point  of  the  net  in  the 
bottle,  and  holding  the  cork  over  the  mouth  for  a  minute,  when 
the  bee  or  wasp  can  be  taken  out  safely,  and  dropped  into  the 
killing  bottle  to  complete  the  operation.  Butterflies  and  moths 
should  not  be  permitted  to  flutter  about  in  a  cyanide  bottle,  thus 
denuding  the  wings  of  their  beautiful  scales.  They  may  be  pinched 
between  thumb  and  finger  while  still  in  the  net  (Fig.  35),  or  a  drop 
of  chloroform  may  be  placed  on  the  thorax  and  abdomen,  and  then 
the  insects  transferred  to  the  cyanide  bottle.  Plant  lice  are  best 
killed  by  dropping  into  vials  of  alcohol. 


28         COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 

Jarring. — Some  insects  may  be  knocked  off  of  shrubbery  or 
branches  of  trees  by  jarring,  the  net  being  held  below. 

Water  insects,  such  as  "water  boatmen/'  skippers  and 
" whirligig-beetles/'  can  be  captured  by  using  the  net.  Some 
larva  can  be  found  under  stones,  in  ponds  and  streams.  Those 
that  frequent  the  bottom  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  metal 
sieve-scoop,  transferring  the  material — small  sticks,  mud,  leaves, 
etc. — to  a  jar,  whence  the  specimens  can  be  separated  later. 

Where  to  Look  for  Insects. — Insects  of  various  kinds  are  found 
in  a  host  of  localities,  upon  flowers,  upon  shrubbery,  along  the 
edges  of  woods,  in  the  woods  themselves,  in  pastures  and  meadows, 
along  the  banks  of  streams,  lakes  and  ponds  and  in  the  waters  of 
the  same;  in  rotten  logs  and  stumps,  under  logs  and  rubbish,  under 
bark,  in  fruits,  and  in  nuts,  etc.  The  collector  who  has  the  keenest 
eyes  is  the  one,  other  things  being  equal,  most  likely  to  succeed. 

Baiting  and  Night  Collecting. 
-While    broad    daylight    and 
bright  sunshine  are  the  best  con- 
ditions under  which  to  collect  the 
majority  of  insects,  many  are  best 
collected   at    twilight,    and   night 
collecting  by  the  use  of  baits  is 
fascinating. 
FIO.  35.— Method  of  handling  butterflies         An  acceptable  bait  is  made  of 

caught  in  net.     (After  H  br()wn    sugar    ^    ^^    forming 

quite  a  thick  syrup,  and  adding  a  goodly  amount  of  stale  beer  or 
rum ;  put  this  on,  say,  twenty  trees  (it  may  also  be  used  on  fences 
or  stumps)  in  the  woods,  just  after  sundown,  spreading  it  with  a 
brush  over  a  space  about  three  by  eight  inches,  and  noting  care- 
fully the  baited  trees,  so  that  they  can  be  found  in  the  dark.  If 
one  starts  out  between  nine  and  ten  with  a  lantern,  preferably  a 
dark  lantern,  or  electric  flashlight,  and  several  cyanide  bottles, 
and  visits  the  treated  trees,  flashing  the  light  carefully  on  the 
anointed  portions,  one  will  probably  discover  moths  and  other 
insects  at  work  sipping  the  attractive  mixture.  A  collect- 
ing bottle  is  placed  cautiously  over  one  of  these  insects  and 
moved  to  right  or  left  slightly,  thus  loosening  the  insect  from  its 
hold,  whereupon  it  falls  into  the  bottle,  the  latter  is  tipped  quickly 
and  corked,  placed  in  one's  pocket,  and  a  second  bottle  used  for 
another  insect.  These  insects  are  later  united  in  one  bottle,  leav- 
ing one  or  more  bottles  free  for  use  in  capturing.  Warm,  still 
nights  are  best  suited  for  this  work. 


PINNING  AND  SPREADING 


29 


Lights  in  an  open  window,  or,  better  still,  the  electric  lights  in 
:he  streets  of  our  towns  and  cities,  offer  excellent  opportunities  for 
light  collecting. 

Pinning  and  Spreading. — In  pinning  insects  a  Comstock  spac- 
ing block  will  be  found  useful.  Its  construction  is  easily  under- 
stood by  a  glance  at  figure  36.  Each  layer  from  which  the  block 


FIG.   30. — A  block  used  in  pinning  insects,  spacing  block. 

is  made  is  one-fourth  as  thick  as  an  insect  pin  is  long.  The  hole 
on  each  step  is  large  enough  to  admit  the  head  of  the  pin.  Each 
insect  should  be,  when  pinned,  just  one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the 
pin  from  the  head.  This  is  brought  about  by  inserting  the  head 
of  the  pin,  after  the  pin  has  been  pushed  through  the  insect,  into 
the  hole  of  the  lower  step — the  back  of  the  specimen  should  rest 


FIG.   -57. — The  proper  way  to  pin  a 
grasshopper. 


FIG.   38. — A  bee  properly     FIG.   39. — The  proper 
pinned.  way  to  pin  a  beetle. 


on  the  step.  By  reversing  the  pin  and  using  the  first  and  second 
steps  the  proper  spacing  of  labels  is  secured,  and  when  small  in- 
sects are  mounted  on  points  the  hole  in  the  highest  step  receives 
the  point  of  the  pin.  The  German  insect  pins  appear  to  be  the 
best,  and  are  made  in  several  sizes.  Perhaps  sizes  0,  1,  3,  5,  and  9 
would  be  those  most  commonly  used  by  the  amateur  collector. 
The  thing  to  be  sought  is  uniformity  in  height  of  insects  and  labels 
in  the  box,  that  the  collection  may  present  a  neat  appearance. 


30 


COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 


Grasshoppers,  bees  and  flies,  butterflies  and  moths,  etc.,  are 
pinned  through  the  thorax,  as  shown  in  figures  37  and  38.  Beetles 
are  pinned  through  the  right  elytron,  or  wing  cover,  as  shown  in 
figure  39.  Bugs  are  pinned  through  the  median  point  of  the  scu- 
tellum  (Figs.  40  and  41). 


Fia.  40. — A  true  bug  correctly  pinned. 


FIQ.  41. — Labels,  showing  species  and 
locality. 


Fia.  42. — A  spreading  board  for  moths  and 
butterflies. 


FIG.  43. — Microscopic  insects  mounted  on 
pith  block. 


Butterflies  and  moths  should  be  spread  on  a  spreading  board 
as  shown  in  figure  42.  They  are  transferred  to  the  collection  when 
dried.  Frequently  the  wings  of  other  insects  are  spread  if  a  col- 
lector has  time  to  go  into  such  niceties. 

Two  dissecting  needles,  made  by  pushing  the  blunt  ends  of 
needles  into  round  sticks  4  inches  long,  of  the  diameter  of  lead 
pencils,  will  be  found  useful  tools  in  spreading. 


PRESERVING  BOTTLES 


31 


Mounting  on  Pith  and  Cardboard  Points.— Small  moths  and 
also  other  small  insects  are  sometimes  mounted  on  pith  by  the 
use  of  tiny  wire,  the  pith  being  first  fastened  to  an  insect  pin  at 
proper  height  (Fig.  43).  Again,  a  small  beetle  or  fly,  or  other 


Fio.  44. — Microscopic  insect 
mounted  on  cardboard  point. 


FIG.  45. — A  punch  for  making  points. 


FIG.  47. 


FIG.  46. 


insect,  may  be  mounted  by  being  gummed  to  a  cardboard  point, 
as  shown  in  figure  44.  These  points  are  made  with  a  triangle 
punch  illustrated  in  figure  45. 

Pinning  forceps  are  desirable  accessories 
in  order  to  hold  the  pin  upright,  and  to 
keep  it  from  bending  when  it  is  being  forced 
into  the  cork  bottom  of  the  collection  box. 
Figures  46  and  47  represent  these  forceps, 
the  first  used  with  lighter  pins,  and  the 
latter  where  large  butterflies,  etc.,  are  being 
placed  in  position  in  the  collection.  A 
cheap  pair  of  pliers  will  answer  fairly  well 
if  one  does  not  care  to  go  to  the  expense 
of  the  regulation  forceps. 

Very  delicate  insects,  such  as  plant 
lice,  minute  flies,  etc.,  which  have  first 
been  in  90  per  cent  alcohol,  are  frequently 
mounted  on  glass  slides,  with  appropriate 
labels  (Fig.  48)  for  identification  and  study 
with  the  microscope. 

Magnifying   Glass.— In    studying   and  FlG-  46'-^ec?as .for  pinning 
handling  small  insects  a  watchmaker's  glass      FlQ-  47t~^ceea^y  Pinning 
(Fig.  49)  is  sometimes  quite  useful.    This 

lies  in  the  fact  that  it  can  be  held  in  one  eye,  leaving  the  hands 
free.  A  pocket  lens  (Fig.  50)  of  some  kind  is  very  desirable. 

Preserving  Bottles. — Figure  51  illustrates  a  home-made  rack 
for  holding  vials,  containing  alcoholic  specimens  to  be  studied. 


32 


COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 


Figure  52  shows  the  Comstock  insect  bottle,  used  by  many  ento- 
mologists for  the  permanent  storing  of  insect  larvae,  pupae,  etc. 

Inflating  and  Mounting  Caterpillars. — Frequently  one  wishes 
to  preserve  a  caterpillar  in  the  dry  state  for  mounting  by  the  side 
of  the  imago.  Kill  the  specimen  in  the  cyanide  bottle;  make  a 
small  slit  with  a  fine  pair  of  scissors  at  the  extreme  posterior  end 


NO.    f 

SUB.  t 


FIG.   48. — Insect  mounted  on  glass  slide,  with  labels. 

of  the  caterpillar.  A  better  way,  perhaps,  is  to  insert  the  point  of 
a  pin  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  into  the  anal  opening  at  the 
posterior  end  of  the  caterpillar,  and  move  it  carefully  around  in 
order  to  cut  through  the  intestinal  wall,  thus  freeing  it  from  its 
attachment  to  the  body  wall. 

Place  the  larva  on  blotting  paper,  and,  placing  a  round  pencil 


FIG.  49. — Watchmaker's    glass    useful    in 
entomological  work. 


FIG.   50. — Coddington  hand  lens. 


upon  it  just  back  of  the  head,  roll  it  backward  gently,  pressing  out 
the  viscera.  Care  must  be  taken  to  move  the  caterpillar  about 
during  this  in  order  to  keep  the  hairs  dry. 

Then  insert  a  straw  or  a  glass  tube  drawn  nearly  to  a  point, 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch,  into  the  opening.  If  a  straw  is  used, 
push  a  fine  pin  through  the  specimen  close  to  the  posterior  end  and 
through  the  straw.  This  will  hold  it  in  place  while  inflating.  If 


REARING  LARVAE 


33 


one  uses  a  glass  tube,  it  should  be  held  over  a  flame  until  the  speci- 
men is  dried  to  it  at  the  point  of  contact.  Should  there  be  any 
openings  between  the  straw  or  tube  and  skin  of  the  caterpillar, 
a  drop  of  glue  will  seal  them.  The  actual  inflating  is  done  by  hold- 
ing the  specimen  in  a  warm  place  for  a  few  moments,  keeping  it 
inflated  to  natural  size  until 
dry.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  a  simple 
apparatus  and  one's  breath, 
as  shown  in  figure  53.  The 
lamp  chimney  rests  upon  an 
iron  saucer  filled  with  sand. 
One  may  prefer  to  purchase 
an  inflating  outfit,  one  of 
which  is  illustrated  in  figure 
54,  in  which  case  the  air  is 
forced  into  the  caterpillar 
from  two  bulbs.  Care  must 
be  taken  not  to  scorch  the  specimen.  When  thoroughly  dry  it  may 
be  pushed  off  the  tube  with  a  sharp  knife. 

A  mount  for  the  caterpillar  has  been  previously  prepared.  This 
will  be  understood  by  a  glance  at  the  accompanying  illustration 
(Fig.  55),  which  shows  a  piece  of  cork  at  the  proper  height  on  an 
insect  pin,  and  some  fine  wire  (preferably  the  covered  wire  used 


FIG.  51.— Stand  for  bottles. 


FIQ.  52. — A  Comstock  bottle  for  alcoholic  specimens. 

by  milliners)  wrapped  about  it  as  shown.  The  two  ends  are  left 
twisted  together,  and  upon  these  the  caterpillar  is  thrust,  a  drop 
of  liquid  glue  having  first  been  placed  on  the  wires'  ends.  The 
specimen  is  then  ready  for  the  label. 

Rearing  Larvae. — A  collector  may  be  uncertain  about  the  iden- 
tity of  a  captured  larva,  or  he  may  wish  to  procure  the  imago  for 
his  collection,  or  he  may  desire  to  study  its  life  history,  observe  its 
3 


34          COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 

moults,  etc.    This  is  easily  accomplished,  whether  it  be  the  young 
stage  of  butterfly,  moth,  beetle,  fly,  or  bug. 

The  specimen  or  specimens  are  confined  in  some  form  of 
breeding  jar  with  an  abundance  of  food.  If  the  food  be  a  plant,  a 
flower  pot  containing  the  same  may  be  placed  in  the  cage  as  shown 


FIQ.  53. — Home-made  apparatus  for 
inflating  larvae. 


FIG.   54. — A  more  expensive  apparatus  for 
inflating  larvae. 


in  figure  56,  which  illustrates  a  home-made  outfit  in  use.  Or  a 
lamp  chimney,  or  lantern  glass,  with  cheesecloth  over  the  top, 
may  be  placed  over  small  plants  upon  which  the  insect  feeds,  the 
glass  being  pushed  into  the  soil  of  the  pot  about  an  inch. 

Water  insects  can  be  studied  in  the  same  way  by  making  an 
aquarium,  as  shown  in  figure  57,  in  which  a  few  water  plants  are 
grown,  and  the  water  of  which  is  kept  fresh. 


FlQ.   55. — An  inflated  larva  properly  mounted. 

The  development  of  larval  stages,  wire  worms,  for  example, 
which  infest  roots,  can  be  studied  in  a  Comstock  root  cage  (Fig. 
58).  This,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  consists  of  two  plates  of 
glass  held  a  short  distance  apart  by  a  supporting  frame.  This 
narrow  space  is  filled  with  soil,  and  seeds  of  young  plants  placed 
therein. 

Careful  and  frequent  observations  should  be  made  of  insects 


CAREFUL  AND  FREQUENT  OBSERVATIONS        35 


Fia.   50. — A  simple  form  of  breeding  cage. 


FIG.  57. — A  home-made  breeding 
jar  for  aquatic  insects. 


FIG.   58. — Corn    growing    between    two 


FIG.  59. — A,   vertical   section   of   moist 


glass  plates  for  study  of  root  forms.     (After          chamber  used  in  relaxing  dried  specimens. 


Comstock.) 


B,  partition  of  brass  or  copper  gauze,  sup- 
ported at  o,  upon  which  insects  are  laid. 


36          COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 

in  breeding  cages,  and  notes  made  of  dates  of  capture  and  condi- 
tion of  specimen,  moults,  pupation,  emergence  of  imago,  etc. 
Frequently,  what  appears  at  the  time  to  be  a  trivial  fact  may  be  an 
important  contribution  to  the  science  of  entomology,  particularly 
if  the  specimen  be  a  pest  to  agriculture. 

Relaxing  Dried  Specimens. — Any  insect  which  has  become 
dried  in  storage,  before  being  pinned,  has  to  be  relaxed  before  it  is 
handled.  We,  for  years,  made  use  of  a  relaxing  box  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  59),  and  found  it  very  satisfactory. 
It  shows  the  box  and  lid  in  section,  A  marking  the  point  at  which 


FIG.  60. — A  Schmidt  insect  box. 

the  wire  gauze  forms  a  false  bottom  a  few  inches  from  the  floor 
of  the  box.  B  shows  surface  view  of  the  gauze,  the  opening  in  the 
corner  affording  an  opportunity  to  pour  water  into  the  bottom  of 
the  box.  A  little  carbolic  acid  is  placed  in  this  water  to  prevent 
mould.  The  insects  are  left  on  the  gauze  over  night,  with  the  cover 
on  the  box.  This  will  generally  cause  them  to  be  so  relaxed  that 
they  can  be  handled  with  safety.  The  box  may  be  made  of  gal- 
vanized iron,  and  this  particular  box  is  9  x  14  inches  and  5  inches 
high,  the  gauze  being  placed  two  and  one-half  inches  from  bottom. 
A  glass  fruit  jar  containing  some  wet  blotting  paper  is  a  simple 
relaxing  chamber. 


MAILING  AND  STORING 


37 


A  light  dust-proof  and  insect-proof  box  is  necessary  to  hold  a 
permanent  collection.  Ideal  boxes  are  seen  in  either  the  Schmidt 
box,  illustrated  in  figure  60,  or  in  a  Comstock  box.  Collections 
should  be  examined  every  few  months  to  prevent  dermestids  or 
other  pests  from  working  injury.  If  evidence  of 
their  presence  is  observed,  the  box  and  its  contents 
should  be  subjected  to  the  fumes  of  carbon  bisulfid 
in  a  closed  receptacle  for  several  hours.  Two 
treatments,  with  ten  days'  interval  between,  may 
be  necessary.  Most  entomologists  keep  naphtha- 
line cones  (Fig.  61)  in  their  insect  boxes  as  repel- 
lents. It  is  not  safe  to  store  insects  permanently  in 
unprotected  cigar  boxes. 

Mailing  and  Storing. — In  mailing  insects  in  vials, 
round  mailing  boxes  (Fig.  62)  are  made  use  of,  the  vial  being 
wrapped  in  cotton.  Figure  63  shows  the  method  of  cutting  and 
folding  papers  for  butterflies  and  moths,  either  when  they  are  to 
be  mailed  (in  which  case  they  would  be  packed  flat  in  boxes),  or 
when  they  are  to  be  kept  in  storage.  Avoid  moisture  in  packing 


FIG.   61. — A  naph- 
thaline cone. 


FIG.   G2. — Mailing  box  for  vials. 

away  insects,  and  protect  them  from  the  attacks  of  mice  and  mu- 
seum pests.  Specimens  of  a  miscellaneous  nature  may  be  mailed  or 
stored  in  boxes  between  layers  of  cotton,  a  piece  of  tissue  paper  being 
placed  below  and  above  them  to  keep  them  from  actual  contact 
with  the  cotton.  This  is  a  good  method  to  be  followed  by  students 
making  small  collections,  required  for  a  school  or  college  course. 


38         COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS 

Keeping  Records. — Some  form  of  entomological  bookkeeping 
is  desirable  for  any  one  wishing  to  make  an  extended  study  of  the 
subject.  Observations  in  the  field  or  in  the  insectary  can  be  made 
upon  small  sheets  of  perforated  paper,  temporarily  bound  in  leather 
covers  of  a  size  suitable  for  the  pocket,  care  being  taken  not  to 


FIG.   63. — Showing  method  of  making  envelopes  for  butterflies. 

write  an  observation  upon  two  or  more  insects  on  the  same  sheet. 
These  sheets  can  later  be  removed  from  the  temporary  cover,  and 
each  one  filed  in  a  box  devoted  to  a  special  insect  or  a  special  set 
of  observations.  Accessions  to  the  collection  may  be  entered  in  a 


Fia.  64. — A  convenient  form  of  card  index  and  container. 

book,  the  accession  number  referring  to  a  special  collection  or  set 
of  insects,  and  the  sub-numbers  placed  on  the  side  referring  to  the 
individual  specimens  in  the  collection.  In  this  case  the  insect 
would  bear  a  label  showing  its  accession  number  and  sub-number, 
as  in  figure  48. 

A  card  index  (Fig.  64)  is  found  to  be  a  very  valuable  aid,  by 


KEEPING  RECOR] 


39 


forming  a  handy  record  of  literature,  illustrations,  lantern  slides, 
cuts  or  special  lines  of  work,  and  can  well  be  used  as  an  accession 
index  also.  The  necessity  of  having  specimens  in  a  collection  care- 
fully labeled,  and  all  data  where  they  can  be  referred  to,  cannot  be 
too  strongly  emphasized. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  making  of  an  insect  killing  bottle. 

2.  Describe  some  special  methods  in  collecting  insect  specimens. 

3.  Describe  the  form  of  net  which  you  prefer. 

4.  Tell  how  to  manage  butterflies  and  moths  to  prevent  fluttering. 

5.  How  would  you  manage  to  collect  water  insects? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  best  places  to  look  for  insect  specimens? 

7.  Describe  some  methods  of  baiting  insects. 

8.  Give  important  points  in  pinning  insects. 

9.  Describe  a  good  spreading  board  and  give  details  of  how  to  use  it. 

10.  Give  directions  for  inflating  and  mounting  caterpillars. 

11.  Give  important  points  in  rearing  larva;. 

12.  How  may  dried  specimens  be  relaxed? 


CHAPTER  V 
INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 

FOR  the  purpose  of  combating  insects  the  farmer,  orchardist 
and  gardener,  disregarding  scientific  classification,  need  consider 
only  two  groups: 

A.  Biting  insects,  or  those  which  devour  leaves,  stems,  stalks 
of  grain,  grasses,  and  fruit.    Examples  of  these  are  seen  in  grass- 
hoppers, caterpillars  of  all  sorts  (including  cut-worms  and   army 
worms),  and  in  beetles  and  so-called  "  slugs, "  the  larvae  of  saw  flies. 

B.  Sucking  insects,  those  which  pierce  the  surface  of  leaf  or 
fruit,  skin  of  animals,  and  suck  the  sap  of  plants  or  the  blood  of 
animals  from  below  the  surface. 

Manifestly  two  entirely  different  classes  of  insecticides  are 
necessary  in  combating  the  two  groups. 

Internal  Poisons. — Group  A  calls  for  internal  poisons,  poison 
sprays  or  poison  baits,  which  taken  internally  result  in  the  death 
of  the  insects  in  question.  Such  poisons  are  found  in  a  number  of 
forms. 

1.  White  arsenic  or  arsenious  oxide  (As2O3)  is  soluble  in  water, 
and  is  dangerous  to  both  plants  and  human  beings  and  hence  not 
desirable. 

2.  Paris  green  is  a  combination  of  arsenic  and  copper  with  a 
certain  amount  of  free  arsenic  occurring  in  the  compound.    Some 
states  limit  it  by  law  to  50  per  cent  arsenious  oxide  and  3^  per 
cent  water-soluble  arsenic.     This  insecticide  costs  from  25  cents 
a  pound  up,  depending  upon  the  copper  market  and  the  avaricious- 
ness  of  the  dealer.    Care  has  to  be  exercised  in  its  use,  otherwise 
sprayed  foliage  is  apt  to  be  burned.    It  should  never  be  used  on 
evergreens. 

A  few  simple  tests  are  available  to  the  farmer  buying  Paris 
green.  It  should  not  be  purchased  at  retail  from  open  sacks  or 
other  open  containers  where  it  is  kept  in  bulk.  It  should  be  bright 
green  in  color,  not  pale  green.  A  small  amount  taken  on  a  knife 
blade,  deposited  on  a  piece  of  glass,  and  the  glass  then  inclined  and 
gently  tapped  should  leave  on  the  glass  a  green  streak ;  if  decidedly 
pale  green  or  whitish  the  Paris  green  is  adulterated. 

Another  test  is  to  add  a  small  amount  (J^  teaspoonful)  to  a 
40 


.  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD  PASTE 


41 


small  glass  of  ammonia;  the  Paris  green  should  completely  dis- 
solve. If  it  does  not  it  is  evidently  adulterated. 

If  a  microscope  is  available  and  a  little  pure  Paris  green  is 
examined  it  will  appear  made  up  largely  of  regular,  more  or  less 
spherical,  bodies  with  smooth  edges  (Fig.  65);  if  adulterated 
many  irregular-shaped  particles  will  be  observed  mixed  with  the 
more  spherical  bodies  (Fig.  66). 

The  fact  that  there  is  some  free  water-soluble  arsenic  in  Paris 
green,  which  amount  may  be  illegally  excessive,  makes  it  more 
or  less  dangerous  to  use  in  the  hands  of  a  careless  grower,  for,  as 
intimated  above,  it  is  very  likely  to  burn  tender  foliage.  At  the 
same  time  some  crops  can  stand  a  large  amount  of  this  insecticide 

•*«»< 


*  rfi   ».c  va  &  i^ml&7v&fvE& 

i  *«*»*  ?**  c  te^iteN^ss 

:g$®  H 

•f  *ft  4 


FIG.   (55. — Good  Paris  green,  as  it  appears 
under  the  microscope. 


FIG.  66. — Poor  Paris  green  as  seen  with  the 
microscope. 


without  injury.  Cabbage  plants,  for  example,  when  good-sized, 
show  no  serious  effect  when  sprayed  with  soap  and  Paris  green  at 
the  rate  of  five  pounds  of  the  latter  in  fifty  gallons  of  water.  Less 
than  one-half  of  those  proportions  would  burn  the  leaves  of  apple 
trees. 

Use  Lime  with  Paris  Green. — This  burning  quality  of  Paris 
green  can  be  restrained  by  the  use  of  two  pounds  of  quicklime  for 
every  pound  of  Paris  green  used.  Since  the  larger  part  is  not 
soluble  in  water,  but  is  held  in  suspension  simply,  there  should  be 
constant  agitation  of  the  liquid  while  spraying. 

3.  Arsenate  of  Lead  Paste. — This  contains  less  than  1  per 
cent  of  free  or  soluble  arsenic  and  about  15  per  cent  of  arsenic 
oxide.  It  is  a  much  safer  and  more  satisfactory  poison  than  the 


42  INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 

foregoing.  It  rarely  injures  foliage  and  has  the  property  of  stick- 
ing to  leaf  and  fruit  much  longer  than  Paris  green.  It  is  always 
used  at  a  greater  strength  than  Paris  green  is  used,  and  with  per- 
fect safety.  Its  effect  is  not  always  so  marked  as  the  latter  and  in 
at  least  one  instance  requires  the  addition  of  a  little  Paris  green  to 
be  really  effective.  The  adult  potato  beetle  is  referred  to,  which 
will  hardly  yield  to  arsenate  of  lead,  although  the  latter  is  sufficient 
to  kill  the  larvse.  Potato  growers  are  advised  to  use  two  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  and  one  pound  of  Paris  green  in  fifty  gallons  of 
water. 

Arsenate  of  lead  paste  may  be  made  at  home,  but  with  diffi- 
culty, and  the  commercial  article  is  preferable.  Directions  for  use 
of  this  and  most  other  insecticides  and  fungicides  are  printed  on  the 
can  label. 

A  powdered  form  of  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  purchased,  which 
can  be  mixed  with  water,  but  is  perhaps  not  as  satisfactory  as  the 
paste.  It  is  quite  effective  if  it  is  mixed  with  air-slaked  lime  and 
dusted  on  plants  after  a  rain  or  when  wet  with  dew. 

4.  London  purple  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline 
dyes.    It  contains  so  large  and  such  a  varying  percentage  of  soluble 
arsenic  that  it  is  not  a  safe  agent.    It  is  little  used  at  present,  but 
its  cheapness  is  attractive. 

5.  Combined  Insecticide  and  Fungicide. — Orchardists'  needs 
frequently  require  that  fungous  diseases  and  insect  pests  may  be 
treated  in  one  spraying.     Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  safely  and 
effectively   added   to   commercial   lime-sulfur.      Potato   growers, 
however,   should  combine  Paris  green  with   Bordeaux  mixture. 
The  last-named  fungicide  is  made  by  combining  four  pounds  of 
copper  sulfate  or  blue  vitrol,  four  pounds  of  quicklime,  and  fifty 
gallons  of  water  as  follows: 

Making  Bordeaux  Mixture. — The  four  pounds  of  copper  sul- 
fate are  suspended  in  a  cloth  sack  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water  in 
some  wooden  receptacle.  It  will  take  several  hours  for  this  to 
dissolve.  In  another  wooden  receptacle  (a  barrel,  for  example) 
four  pounds  of  quicklime  are  slaked  in  just  enough  water  for  this 
purpose,  and  enough  more  water  gradually  added  to  make  twenty- 
five  gallons.  These  two  solutions  may  be  then  united  or  equal 
portions  taken  from  each  container  as  desired.  This  compound, 
like  all  other  spraying  mixtures,  should  be  carefully  strained  before 
beirig  placed  in  the  spray  pump  reservoir,  barrel,  or  tank.  Bor- 
deaux mixture  should  be  used  as  soon  as  made;  it  changes  on  stand- 


POISON  BAITS  43 

ing.    Several  commercial  mixtures  of  prepared  Bordeaux  combined 
with  arsenate  of  lead  are  on  the  market. 

6.  White  Hellebore  is  not  poisonous  to  human  beings,  but 
deadly  if  eaten  by  insects,  and  is  very  useful  if  used  fresh.     It 
loses  its  strength  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  air.    It  is  a  product 
of  the  white  hellebore  plant  and  is  generally  used  in  the  dry  form, 
by  dusting  it  over  the  plant.     It  may  be  made  into  a  decoction 
(one  ounce  in  two  quarts  of  water)  by  steeping,  and  used  as  a  spray. 

7.  Proprietary  Insecticides. — Under  this  head  are  classed  quite 
a  number  of  compounds  with  attractive  names,  but  of  questionable 
utility.    Many  of  them  are  valueless,  or,  if  of  any  merit,  cost  three 
or  four  times  as  much  as  a  farmer  need  pay. 

8.  Poison  Baits. — Attractive  baits  may  be  made  which  con- 
tain poison: 

Poison  Bran  Mash. — This  is  very  effective  against  cut- worms, 
army  worms,  and  grasshoppers.  It  is  made  as  follows :  Paris  green 
is  mixed  with  dry  bran  until  the  latter  becomes  quite  green.  Pro- 
portions approximate  one  pound  Paris  green  to  20  or  25  pounds  of 
bran.  To  this  dry  mass  are  then  added  water  and  about  two  quarts 
of  cheap  syrup  or  molasses  and  the  mixture  stirred.  It  should  be 
of  the  consistency  of  chicken  feed,  not  sloppy.  For  cut-worms  a 
tablespoonful  of  this  is  placed  near  a  plant,  perhaps  eight  inches 
away.  If  placed  too  close,  a  copious  rain  may  wash  the  Paris  green 
onto  the  roots,  destroying  the  plant.  For  both  cut- worms  and 
army  worms  covering  large  areas,  it  is  broadcast  among  plants,  or, 
from  a  tub  on  a  stoneboat,  over  fields  infested  with  grasshoppers. 

Dean,  of  Kansas,  recommends,  for  grasshoppers,  adding  the 
juice  and  pulp  of  three  oranges  or  lemons  to  a  mixture  of  one  pound 
Paris  green,  twenty  pounds  wheat  bran,  two  quarts  of  syrup  and 
three  and  one-half  gallons  of  water.  Some  workers,  however, 
claim  that  the  addition  of  the  fruit  does  not  make  any  material 
difference  in  the  attractiveness  'of  the  bait. 

For  cut-worms,  where  Paris  green  is  too  expensive  or  not  pro- 
curable, ten  pounds  of  bran  may  be  poisoned  with  one  pound  of 
arsenic,  mixed  into  a  dough  with  water  and  where  practicable  with 
molasses  or  cheap  syrup. 

A  bait  made  of  alfalfa  or  clover,  freshly  cut  and  dipped  into  a 
solution  of  arsenic  and  water  and  distributed  in  small  bunches  at 
sundown  or  after,  is  quite  effective  against  cut-worms.  It  may  also 
be  used  against  prairie  dogs.  When  dried  by  the  sun  this  bait  is 
not  attractive. 


44  INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 

Poisoned  Grain. — Corn  may  be  soaked  in  a  strychnine  solution, 
rendering  it  poisonous  to  crows,  squirrels  or  gophers,  and  may  be 
scattered  about  in  fields  where  crows  are  working.  The  method  of 
making  and  using  this  solution  is  as  follows: 

One  ounce  of  sulfate  of  strychnia  is  dissolved  in  two  quarts  of 
boiling  water.  This  is  sufficient  to  treat  a  bushel  of  grain,  which 
should  soak  over  night.  The  poison  should  be  prepared  and  mixed 
with  the  grain  in  a  metal  container  and  the  latter  thoroughly 
cleansed  after  the  operation.  Wheat  is  used  when  mice  or  gophers 
or  prairie  dogs  are  to  be  poisoned.  Crushed  or  rolled  oats  form  a 
good  basis  for  a  poison  bait.  Seed  corn  may  also  be  safely  treated 
with  this  preparation.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture (Farmers'  Bulletin  670)  recommends  for  field  mice  the  adding 
of  two  tablespoonfuls  of  laundry  starch  in  one-half  pint  of  cold 
water  to  either  of  the  above  poisons,  pouring  the  starch  into  the 
solution  and  boiling  for  a  few  minutes,  then  pouring  it  over  the 
grain.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  stock  or  poultry  having 
access  to  poison  baits. 

Tarred  corn  can  be  prepared  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  it  to 
pass  easily  through  the  planter  (see  under  Crow,  page  405).  This 
treatment  also  renders  it  distasteful  to  wire  worms,  squirrels  and 
gophers  which  sometimes  attack  the  planted  seed. 

9.  Arsenite  of  Soda. — One-fifth  ounce  of  arsenite  of  soda,  one- 
half  pint  of  New  Orleans  molasses  and  one  gallon  of  water  sprayed 
on  young  cabbage,  cauliflower,  onion  plants  and  radishes  attract 
and  poison  the  adult  flies  which  produce  the  destructive  maggots. 
To  be  effective  they  must  be  applied  early, before  egg  laying  begins. 

Bait  for  Sow-bugs. — Paris  green  or  arsenic  on  slices  of  potato 
is  claimed  to  be  a  successful  bait  for  sow-bugs  (not  insects)  in 
greenhouses.  We  have  successfully  used  a  mixture  of  Paris  green 
and  sugar.  The  Florists9  Review  advises  for  sow-bugs,  two 
parts  rye  flour,  two  parts  sugar,  one  part  Paris  green,  kept  dry  and 
frequently  renewed. 

Insecticides  for  Sucking  Insects. — Contact  insecticides  are  in- 
tended for  such  insects  as  do  not  eat  the  surface  of  plant,  but  suck 
the  sap  from  below  it.  Entomologists  formerly  believed  that  soap, 
oil,  or  oil  mixtures  killed  by  stopping  the  spiracles  and  thus 
"smothering"  the  insect.  This  theory  appears  to  be,  in  part  at 
least,  disproved,  since  insects  can  live  a  long  time  without  access 
to  oxygen.  It  is  now  thought  that  their  death  is  due  to  volatile 
substances  in  oil  or  soap. 


SOAP  SOLUTIONS  45 

Kerosene  Emulsion. — This  compound  has  been  largely  super- 
seded by  soap  solutions  and  tobacco  extracts,  because  to  be  a  safe 
agent  it  must  be  made  and  used  correctly;  if  not,  the  kerosene, 
separating  from  the  emulsion,  gathers  at  the  top  of  the  mixture, 
and  when  the  spray  pump  draws  this  layer  off  and  applies  it  to 
foliage  severe  burning  is  the  result.  The  approved  formula  for 
kerosene  emulsion  is:  One  pound  soap,  dissolved  in  two  gallons  of 
hot  soft  water.  When  boiling  hot  this  is  taken  from  the  fire  and 
four  gallons  of  cheap  kerosene  added,  the  mixture  being  at  once 
churned  by  means  of  a  force  pump  until  a  creamy,  white  emulsion 
is  formed.  This  is  the  stock  solution.  For  summer  spraying  add 
thirty-four  gallons  of  water  to  this;  for  dormant  or  winter  spraying 
add  from  ten  to  fourteen  gallons  of  water.  Keep  the  liquid  well 
agitated  while  spraying. 

Avoid  any  mechanical  mixture  of  oil  and  water;  and  never  use 
pumps  advertised  as  mixing  oil  and  water  mechanically.  In  using 
any  dormant  or  winter  spray  it  should  not  be  applied  in  severe 
weather; mother  words,  freezing  of  the  spray  on  the  tree  should  be 
guarded  against. 

Crude  Oil  Emulsion. — Made  in  the  same  way  as  the  above, 
employing  crude  petroleum  in  place  of  kerosene.  A  20  per  cent 
solution  is  used  as  a  dormant  spray  against  scale  insects. 

Distillate  Emulsion. — Thirty  pounds  whale  oil  or  fish  oil  soap 
dissolved  in  twenty  gallons  of  water  by  boiling.  Add  twenty 
gallons  of  distillate  and  churn  while  hot.  When  wanted  for  use, 
add  20  gallons  of  water  to  every  1  gallon  of  stock. 

Lime-sulfur. — While  this  may  be  made  at  home,  it  is  one  of  the 
few  proprietary  compounds  which  can  best  be  purchased.  Com- 
plete directions  for  use  are  given  on  containers.  Primarily  a  fungi- 
cide, it  forms  an  excellent  insecticide  for  scale  insects  and  many 
other  pests.  It  can  be  used  both  as  a  dormant  spray  and,  much 
reduced  by  the  addition  of  water,  as  a  summer  insecticide  or  fungi- 
cide. Combined  with  arsenate  of  lead,  it  affords  a  means  of  preven- 
tion for  both  codling  moth  or  curculio  injury  and  the  apple 
scab.  It  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  useful  agents  in  the 
work  of  the  orchardist.  The  stock  solution  will  stand  a  very  low 
temperature,  possibly  five  or  ten  degrees  above  zero  without 
freezing. 

Soap  Solutions. — It  is  doubtful  if  true  whale  oil  soap  is  on  the 
market  at  this  time.  If  so,  the  price  must  be  prohibitive.  It 
would  be  safer  to  assume  that  soap  advertised  as  whale  oil  soap  is 


46  INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 

made  from  fish  oil.  Ordinary  laundry  soap  and  ivory  soap  are  both 
efficacious  against  lice  and  harmless  to  foliage  or  fruit. 

A  five-cent  cake  of  ivory  soap  dissolved  in  five  or  six  gallons  of 
hot  water  or  one  pound  of  laundry  soap  in  the  same  amount  of 
water  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  plant  lice,  and  will  not  injure  the 
most  tender  foliage.  It  is  best  used  warm,  and  a  little  tobacco 
decoction,  either  made  from  stems  or  purchased,  if  added  to  the 
soap  solution  increases  its  efficiency. 

Tobacco  Extracts. — While  a  fairly  efficient  extract  may  be  made 
by  steeping  tobacco  stems  or  other  waste  forms  of  tobacco,  it  is 
better  to  rely  upon  the  commercial  extract  at  present  on  the 
market.  "  Black  Leaf  40,"  a  nicotine  sulfate  solution,  gives  excel- 
lent results.  The  commercial  form  may  usually  be  used  in 
place  of  the  patent  preparation.  It  is  expensive,  but  can  be 
effectively  used  hi  such  extreme  dilution  that  the  final  cost  is 
slight.  For  example,  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  in  a  gallon 
of  water  are  most  effective  against  plant  lice,  and  if  this  solution  is 
poured  several  times  at  intervals  around  the  base  of  melon  vines 
it  forms  an  exceedingly  helpful  remedy  for  the  larvae  of  the  striped 
cucumber  beetle  working  on  the  roots. 

Nicofume  is  another  tobacco  solution.  It  is  vaporized  in 
greenhouses;  and  a  prepared  paper  (Nicofume  paper)  is  burned  as 
a  fumigant  against  lice  on  melons  and  in  greenhouses.  It  is  pre- 
pared by  soaking  porous  paper  in  tobacco  extract  or  nicotine 
sulfate.  After  drying  it  may  be  burned,  causing  the  desired  fumes. 

Tobacco  Dust. — This  is  finely  powdered  product,  used  on  young 
radishes  against  root  maggot,  and  on  dahlia  and  aster  buds  against 
tarnished  plant  bug.  It  is  also  of  practical  use  in  greenhouses. 

Flowers  of  Sulfur. — This  material  is  dusted  on  steam  pipes  in 
greenhouses,  but  is  only  fairly  effective  against  the  " white-fly." 
Mixed  with  air-slaked  lime  it  is  used  for  control  of  red  spider 
and  mite. 

Pyrethrum,  Buhach,  Persian  Insect  Powder. — This  is  made 
from  the  pulverized  heads  of  a  species  of  chrysanthemum.  Must 
be  used  when  fresh  to  be  effective.  Harmless  to  human  beings 
and  to  foliage.  It  is  either  dusted  on  plants  or  steeped  for 
several  minutes  in  water,  one  ounce  of  pyrethrum  to  three  quarts 
of  water. 

Air-slaked  Lime. — This  is  an  excellent  and  cheap  deterrent  and 
insecticide  for  many  insects.  Dusted  on  leaves  of  fruit  trees,  it 
is  deadly  to  the  leaf -eating  "slugs."  It  saves  to  a  large  extent 


DUST  SPRAYING  VERSUS  LIQUID  SPRAYING      47 


potato  vines  from  attacks  of  flea  beetles.  It  drives  striped  cucum- 
ber beetles  away  from  melons  and  cucumbers. 

Road  dust  is  used  effectively  against  slugs  on  foliage. 

Crude  Carbolic  Acid. — Dissolve  one  pound  of  hard  soap1  in 
one  gallon  of  water  by  boiling,  add  one  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid 
and  churn  by  forcing  it  with  a  spray  pump  over  into  itself  until 
emulsion  is  formed.  The  stock  solution  should  be  diluted  with 
about  thirty  parts  of  water  when  wanted  for  use.  It  is  employed 
against  root  maggots,  but  the  arsenite  of  soda  spray  appears  to  be 
more  effective  and  easier  to  prepare.  Diluted  one  part  of  stock 
carbolic  solution  to  twenty  parts  of  water,  it  is  used  in  California, 
as  a  spray  against  mealy  bugs,  plant  lice  and  soft  brown  scale. 


Fio.  67. — A  hand  dust  sprayer  at  work  in  a  nursery. 

Hot  Water. — Boiling  hot  water,  poured  upon  plants  from  a 
watering  pot  held  above  the  plants,  has  sufficient  heat  to  kill 
caterpillars  (green  cabbage  worms,  for  example)  without  injuring 
the  foliage. 

Dust  Spraying  Versus  Liquid  Spraying. — This  subject  is  one  of 
some  controversy  between  workers,  with  most  of  the  evidence  in 
favor  of  the  latter  process.  However,  where  water  is  scarce,  or 
when  orchard  trees  or  other  crops  are  on  steep  hillsides  where  liquid 
cannot  well  be  hauled,  the  dust  spray  appeals  to  one  strongly. 

1  Wherever  hard  soap  is  mentioned  in  the  above  suggestions  it  can  be 
replaced  with  soft  soap  by  using  twice  as  much  of  the  soft  soap  as  directed 
for  the  hard  soap. 


48  INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 

Other  advantages  of  the  dust  method  are  as  follows:  The  cloud 
of  dust  envelops  immense  numbers  of  trees,  one  barrel  of  dust,  it 
is  claimed,  under  proper  conditions,  being  sufficient  to  cover  five 
hundred  trees;  one  cannot  get  on  too  much  of  the  dust;  it  com- 
mends itself  for  small  plants  such  as  cabbages,  currants,  and  straw- 
berries; it  is  somewhat  less  expensive,  both  in  labor  and  material, 
than  using  the  liquid  spray ;  one  hundred  large  trees  can  be  dusted 
in  one  hour  at  an  average  cost  of  about  one  cent  per  tree  (Figs. 
67  and  68). 

Its  disadvantages  lie  in  several  facts:  When  a  strong  wind  is 
blowing  it  cannot  well  be  used,  because  one  is  obliged  to  keep  to 
windward  side  of  trees  constantly;  it  is  best  used  when  the  dew  is 


FIG.  68. — A  larger  dust  sprayer  on  wagon. 

on  the  trees  or  plants,  thus  relegating  the  work  to  the  early  morn- 
ing hours;  it  is  not  especially  effective  against  the  codling  moth; 
on  account  of  the  clouds  of  dust  it  settles  on  horses  and  workmen 
much  more  readily  than  liquid  spray;  is  not  nearly  as  effective 
against  sucking  insects  as  the  recommended  liquid  sprays. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  dust  spray  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  one  barrel  of  quicklime  will  make  two  •  and  one-half 
barrels  of  dust  (air-slaked  lime) ;  five  pounds  of  Paris  green  to  every 
barrel  of  lime  is  the  proper  proportion  to  be  used  against  biting 
insects;  it  should  be  repeated  several  times.  For  canker  worms, 
however,  one  should  use  ten  pounds  of  Paris  green  to  every  barrel 
of  lime;  and  for  potato  beetles  and  green  cabbage  worms  twenty- 
five  pounds  to  every  barrel. 


MECHANICAL  MEASURES  AGAINST  INSECTS      49 

In  using  a  liquid  spray,  apply  until  the  liquid  drips  from  the 
tree.  Never  spray  a  tree  in  bloom,  because  of  danger  to  visiting 
bees. 

MECHANICAL   MEASURES   AGAINST   INSECTS 

1.  Trap  Crops. — A  crop  not  desired  by  the  farmer  may  be 
used  to  attract  insect  pests  which  might  otherwise  attack  a  valuable 
crop.    For  example,  millet  planted  about  a  corn  field  will  protect 
the  latter  crop  from  chinch  bugs,  which  prefer  the  millet  and  may 
be  destroyed  thereon. 

2.  Lantern  Traps. — A  lighted  lantern  suspended  at  night  over 
a  tub  partially  filled  with  water  covered  with  a  film  of  kerosene 
will  attract  large  numbers  of  May  beetles  or  "June  bugs"  (Fig. 


i 


FIG.  69. — A  lantern  trap  for  catching  June  beetles. 

69).    This  remedy  should  be  used  at  the  very  first  appearance  of 
the  insects,  before  the  females  have  laid  their  eggs. 

3.  Bands  of  burlap  or  other  material  about  apple  trees  afford 
a  nesting  place  for  larvae  of  codling  moths.     The  larvae  or  pupae 
under  the  bands  may  be  destroyed  at  intervals. 

Traps  for  encircling  trunks  of  trees,  preventing  the  ascent  of 
canker  worms,  are  on  the  market. 

4.  Tree  Tanglefoot. — This  is  a  manufactured  sticky  compound 
used  as  a  band  on  trunks  of  trees  to  prevent  ascent  of  wingless 
moths  and  caterpillars;  when  used  on  young  and  tender-barked 
trees,  these  must  be  protected  by  paper  or  cloth  so  that  the  tangle- 
foot will  not  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  tender  bark.     This 
paper  or  cloth  should  not  be  tied  on  young  trees  with  a  tight  string 
and  left  during  the  growing  season  for  fear  of  girdling  the  tree. 

4 


50 


INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 


5.  Hopperdozers. — Various  forms  of  these  may  be  constructed 
to  combat  grasshoppers  or  other  jumping  insects  (Figs.  70  and  71). 

6.  Ditches  may  be  dug  around  a  threatened  crop  to  prevent 
inroads  by  chinch  bugs,  army  worms,  field  mice,  gophers,  etc. 
(see  discussion  of  these  pests). 

7.  Dust  furrows  may  be  used  against  an  advancing  army  of 
chinch  bugs. 

8.  Oil  barriers  are  also  used  to  check  chinch  bugs  where  dust 
furrows  are  not  practicable. 

9.  Tarred  Paper  or  Tarred  Felt  Disks. — These  are  placed  on 
cabbage  or  cauliflower  plants  when  set  out,  to  prevent  eggs  of 
cabbage  maggot  being  placed  thereon. 


Fio.  70. — Working  against  grasshoppers  with  a  "hopperdozer." 

10.  Covering  of  Seed  Beds  and  Plants. — Cabbage  and  other 
plants  in  coldframes  are  protected  by  screens.  Melons  and  cucum- 
ber plants  may  be  guarded  against  insect  attack  until  well  started, 
by  wooden  frames  covered  on  top  with  cheesecloth. 

Wash  for  Tree  Trunks  and  Limbs. — Several  washes  for  pro- 
tection of  trees  against  borers  are  in  use.  They  act  as  deterrents 
and  some  of  them  as  poisons  for  the  young  grubs  entering  the  tree. 
All  are  more  or  less  effective,  but  must  not  be  relied  upon  absolutely. 
The  following  is  an  example:  Two  quarts  of  strong  soft  soap  (or 
one  pound  hard  soap)  dissolved  in  a  bucket  of  water.  Add  one-half 
pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid  and  two  ounces  of  Paris  green.  Then  add 
lime  or  clay,  or  both,  to  make  it  a  thick  paste  (O'Kane).  Probably 
two  applications  of  this  wash  during  the  year  would  be  necessary. 

Never  use  an  oil  paint — white  lead,  for  example — or  any  form  of 
boiled  linseed  oil  on  trunk  or  limbs. 


SPRAY  PUMPS  AND  SPRAYING 


51 


12.  Jarring  trees  is  useful  to  dislodge  beetles  and  let  them  fall 
on  sheets  below. 

13.  Hand  Picking. — Large  caterpillars  and  other  insects  may 
be  easily  picked  off  of  trees  and  .plants. 

14.  Burning  of  Caterpillar  Nests. — Tent  caterpillars  and  the 
fall  web  worm  may  be  burned  by  touching  their  nests  with  a  burn- 
ing rag  and  saturated  with  kerosene  wired  to  a  pole.    This  should 
be  done  at  a  time  when  the  caterpillars  are  "at  home." 


FIG.  71. — Removing  dead 


>perdozer. 


SPRAY    PUMPS   AND    SPRAYING 

Cheap  spray  pumps  should  be  avoided,  and  a  high  price  should 
not  be  paid  for  an  inferior  article,  which  is  not  dependable.  A 
hand  atomizer  or  sprayer  for  use  in  flower  gardens  or  where  only 
a  few  plants  are  concerned  can  be  bought  for  from  $1.00  to  $3.00; 
a  bucket  pump  (Fig.  72)  used  in  connection  with  bucket  or 
pail  may  cost  from  $6.00  to  $7.00,  while  knapsack  sprayers  (Fig. 
73)  cost  from  $10.00  to  $14.00,  and  a  barrel  pump,  most  serviceable 
and  satisfactory  for  a  medium-sized  orchard,  will  cost  from  $14.00 
to  $16.00,  without  the  barrel.  Power  sprayers,  run  by  gasoline, 
will  amount  in  price  from  $125.00  to  $300.00. 

The  essential  points  are  that  all  valves  are  of  the  ball  type,  and 


52 


INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 


working  parts  of  brass  or  bronze.     Leather  or  rubber  valves  are 
not  used  in  the  best  pumps.     Cylinders  lined  with  porcelain  are 
not  desirable.      A  farmer  or  fruit 
grower  with   a  medium-sized   or- 
chard should   be  willing  to    pay 
anywhere  from  $12.00  to   &20.00 


FIG.   72. — Bucket  pump. 


FIG.  74,— A  barrel  spray  pump,  showing  agitator. 


FIG.  73. — A  knapsack  sprayer. 


for  a  good  pump.  A  pur- 
chaser should  insist  on  see- 
ing the  inside  of  a  pump 
before  buying.  In  getting 
the  more  expensive  pumps, 
several  growers  might  unite, 
thereby  being  enabled  to 
purchase  a  good  article  with 
comparatively  small  expense 
to  the  individual. 

Some  Good  Types  of 
Sprayers. — Figures  74 ,  75 
and  76  illustrate  types  of 
barrel  piimps,  and  figure 
77  a  double-action  pump. 
Figure  78  is  a  combination 
barrel  pump  and  cart,  and 
figure  79  a  one-man  outfit, 


54  INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 

which  has  been  found  most  serviceable  in  experimental  work.  It 
is  an  excellent  apparatus  for  a  few  small  trees,  garden  vegetables, 
and  other  plants  and  shrubbery.  Tall  trees  may  be  sprayed  from 
a  home-made  tower  as  shown  in  figure  80,  or  with  a  more  modern 
apparatus,  run  by  gasoline  power,  shown  in  figure  81.  Low  plants 
in  acreage  amount,  like  large  fields  of  strawberries,  for  example, 
are  well  handled  with  an  outfit  as  shown  in  figure  82,  or  its 
equivalent. 

Hose  and  Extension  Rod. — Connections  of  good  hose  are  im- 
portant, and  poor  hose  should  be  avoided;  three-ply  and  four-ply 


FIG.   78. — Barrel  pump  with  cart. 

are  generally  used,  but  where  great  pressure  is  to  be  needed,  five- 
or  even  six-ply  is  desirable.  Hose  can  be  bought  of  any  length. 
Where  trees  of  some  height  are  to  be  sprayed,  extension  rods  are 
necessary  (Fig.  83).  These  extension  rods  can  be  bought  of  various 
lengths,  and  consist  either  of  metal  pipe  alone  or  the  same  encased 
in  bamboo.  To  the  ends  of  this  the  hose  and  nozzle  are  attached. 
Drip  guards  which  encircle  the  extension  just  below  the  nozzle,  or 
just  above  the  point  where  it  is  held,  will  add  to  the  comfort  of 
the  man  spraying.  These  guards  catch  liquid  which  would  other- 
wise run  down  the  pole  upon  his  hands. 

A  nozzle  which  can  be  readily  cleaned  is  important,  and  one 


FIG.   79. — A  very  serviceable  outfit 


Fia.  80. — A  home-made  tower. 


56 


INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 


which  applies  the  liquid  in  a  fine  spray  and  with  force.     The 
Vermorel  type  is  the  most  desirable,  and  of  recent  years  the  nozzles 

known  as  the  " Friend" 
and  the  "Mistry"  ap- 
pear to  give  best  results. 
When  Bordeaux  mixture 
or  whitewash  is  to  be 
used,  a  "Bordeaux"  noz- 
zle is  best.  A  nozzle  with 
sharp  angles  or  projec- 
tions is  apt  to  catch  on 
twigs  and  branches  while 
in  use.  Figures  84,  85, 
86,  87  and  88  illustrate 
different  types  of  nozzles. 

FIG.  81.— A  sensible  outfit  for  power  spraying,     rpi         J-         +_._«      ~f    ,,/U^V, 
where  large  trees  have  to  be  treated.     (Courtesy  of     ine    Q1SC    lYPe>     OI     WHICH 

the  Gould  Mfg.  Co.)  the   "Mistry"   is   an  ex- 

ample, shown  in  figure  87,  B,  B1  and  C,  and  in  figure  88,  2,  receive 
most  favorable  comment  in  connection  with  tree  spraying. 

F - 


FIG.  82. — Three-row  sprayer  at  work  in  a  field  of  strawberries. 

Never  spray  plants  or  trees  when  in  bloom.  Protect  men  and 
horses  from  lime-sulfur. 

The  Spray  Itself. — Closely  connected  with  the  subject  of  a 
nozzle  is  consideration  of  the  spray  itself.  The  liquid  must  be 


AGITATORS  57 

applied  in  the  form  of  a  mist,  or  very  fine  spray,  and 
must  strike  the  fruit,  leaf  or  twig  with  force.  A 
nozzle  which  will  not  do  this  is,  with  the  exception 
noted  below,  of  little  or  no  value,  so  far  as  treatment 
against  insect  pests  is  concerned.  Do  not  think  that 
a  mere  sprinkling  is  going  to  do  the  work.  Note,  in 
this  connection,  that  the  old-fashioned  field  sprinkler 
which  used  to  be  employed  in  putting  Paris  green 
solution  on  potato  vines  has  been  replaced  by  the 
modern  cart,  geared  to  pump  automatically,  and  fur- 
nished with  nozzles  which  apply  the  liquid  in  a  fine 
spray  and  with  force.  This  is  economy,  for  when 
there  is  but  a  coarse  spray,  or  if  the  nozzle  "  dribbles, " 
the  liquid  is  wasted.  It  is  economy,  too,  while  seeing 
that  every  leaf  and  every  part  of  the  fruit  or  twig  is 
well  covered,  not  to  waste  the  liquid  by  spraying  too 
much;  that  is,  the  liquid  should  not  drip  off  or  run 
off  the  tree  or  plant  to  any  great  extent  while  being 
treated. 

Strainers. — All  compounds  used  for  spraying  should 
be  strained  before  or  while  being  poured  into  the  barrel 
or  other  receptacle  from  which  they  are  to  be  drawn 
by  the  pump.  If  possible  avoid  using  burlap  for  this 
purpose,  as  lint  is  bound  to  be  carried  into  the  pump, 
and  is  likely  to  give  trouble  by  clogging  the  nozzle. 
Brass  strainers  are  the  best.  They  are  made  to  fit 
the  opening  through  which  one  pours  the  liquid.  In 
addition  to  this,  every  good  pump  has  a  strainer  in 
the  lower  end  of  the  suction  pipe  or  suction  hose 
through  which  the  liquid  is  drawn  into  the  pump. 

Agitators. — Most  pumps — all  good  pumps — are 
equipped  with  agitators  which,  as  a  rule,  the  working 
of  the  pump  handle  keeps  in  motion  (Figs.  74,  75, 
76).  These  are  generally  paddles  which  keep  the 
liquid  in  the  barrel  or  other  receptacle  constantly 
stirred.  Paris  green,  being  heavier  than  water,  sinks 
if  the  liquid  is  not  kept  constantly  in  motion,  the 
result  being  that  the  poison  is  unevenly  distributed, 
and  a  part  of  the  tree  or  a  portion  of  the  plant  will  be 
injured  or  killed  by  receiving  an  unnecessarily  large  FIG.  83.— A 
amount  of  the  green,  while  other  parts  will  receive  j££bo°  exten~ 


FIG.   84. — Nozzles  of  Bordeaux   (left)   and 
Vermorel  type. 


FIG.  85. — Double  Bordeaux  nozzle. 


FIG.  86. — Double  Vermorel  nozzle  with  Y  connection. 


A.  Bordeaux. 


B1.  Disc  type 
adjustable. 


C.  Two  B  type  attached  to  a  Y,  adjustable 
to  any  angle. 


D.  Fine  spray.          E.  Coarse  spray.  F.  Solid  stream  nozzle. 

FIG.   87. — Collection  of  nozzles. 


DUST  SPRAYERS 


59 


little  or  none.  Should  one  be  using  Paris  green  in  a  liquid  from 
a  bucket,  this  should  be  borne  in  mind,  and  the  liquid  almost 
constantly  stirred. 

Tanks  for  Field  Use. — These  can  be  made  of  galvanized  iron 
or  pine,  cypress  or  cedar.  The  last  is  said  to  be  the  best  of  the 
woods  for  this  purpose  where  obtainable.  When  made  of  wood, 
the  inside  should  be  painted.  Tanks  vary  greatly  in  size.  Two 
horses  cannot  comfortably  draw  more  than  250  gallons  of  liquid 
over  the  field. 


FIG.   88. — 1.    Bordeaux  nozzle.    2.  Disc  type  of  nozzle;  and  3.  Double  Vermorel.     Britton 
and  Clinton.     Report  of  Conn.  Station,  1911 

Knapsack  Sprayers. — These  are  machines  intended  to  be  car- 
ried around  on  the  person's  back,  or  lifted  about  by  hand  when 
desired.  They  are  excellent  for  work  with  shrubbery  or  in  garden 
where  too  much  ground  is  not  to  be  covered.  The  writer  speaks 
from  personal  experience  when  he  says  that  after  several  fillings, 
the  weight  tells  upon  one's  back  and  shoulders  (Fig.  73). 

Dust  Sprayers. — The  simplest  form  of  dust  sprayer  is  found, 
perhaps,  in  the  little  bellows  sold  at  drug  stores,  and  used  to  dis- 


60  INSECTICIDES  AND  SPRAYING 

tribute  pyrethrum  in  cracks  and  crevices  which  might  conceal 
fleas  or  bedbugs.  A  larger  bellows  is  made  for  use  with  plants,  and 
a  still  more  complete  machine  for  field  use  is  shown  in  figure  67. 
With  these  one  can  distribute  lime  or  a  mixture  of  lime  and  Paris 
green,  dry  Bordeaux  and  like  material.  More  recently,  at  least 
two  firms  have  manufactured  dust  sprayers  on  a  larger  scale,  to 
be  placed  on  wagons,  and  intended  for  use  in  large  nurseries  or 
orchards.  One  called  the  " Cyclone  Sprayer,"  and  made  in  Kansas 
City,  is  shown  in  figure  68.  This  machine  and  a  smaller  one  made 
by  the  same  firm  are  shown  in  use  on  pages  47  and  48.  A  dry 
Bordeaux  and  certain  caustic  compounds  are  used  with  these 
sprayers,  or  a  combination  of  dry  Bordeaux  and  Paris  green  is 
manufactured,  though  directions  are  given  to  purchasers  whereby 
many  of  these  compounds  may  be  made  at  home. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  two  practical  divisions  of  insects  can  be  made  by  the  farmer  and 

orchardisi;, independent  of  scientific  classification,  and  what  bearing  have 
these  upon  the  use  of  insecticides? 

2.  Describe  Paris  green  and  its  uses.    How  can*one  distinguish  between  good 

and  bad  Paris  green? 

3.  Describe  and  discuss  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead. 

4.  Why  is  the  use  of  London  purple  undesirable? 

5.  How  can  we  treat  a  tree  for  a  plant  disease  and  insect  pest  at  the  same 

time? 

6.  Describe  poison  baits  and  their  uses. 

7.  Name  in  order  of  importance  three  insecticides  for  use  against  sucking 

insects. 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  leading  mechanical  measures  against  insects? 

9.  Enumerate  the  uses  of  tobacco  derivatives  in  sprays. 

10.  What  is  the  chief  objection  to  the  use  of  kerosene  emulsion? 

11.  Give  a  recipe  for  a  preventive  wash  to  apply  to  the  trunks  and  branches 

of  fruit  trees. 

12.  Compare  liquid  and  dust  spraying. 

13.  WThat  points  are  to  be  desired  in  a  spray  pump,  and  what  features  are  to 

be  avoided? 

14.  Discuss  nozzles,  good  and  bad. 


CHAPTER  VI 
FUMIGATION 

FUMIGATION,  in  entomology,  consists  of  the  application  of 
poisonous  gases  to  kill  insects.  Disregarding  a  discussion  of  ben- 
zine derivatives,  the  use  of  which  is  yet  in  the  experimental 
stage,  we  find  available  for  use  in  fumigation  the  following: 
Tobacco — discussed  before ;  sulfur,  either  in  powdered  form  or  in 
the  shape  of  " candles";  formaldehyde — of  little  or  no  value 
against  insects;  carbon  bisulfid,  and  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  The 
last  two  deserve  most  careful  consideration  as  being  of  the  greatest 
economic  importance. 

Carbon  Bisulfid. — A  cheaper  grade  is  known  as  Fuma.  The 
commercial  grade  is  excellent  for  use  against  clothes  moths,  buf- 
falo beetles,  and  insects  infesting  stored  grain  or  seeds.  It  has  a 
most  striking  odor,  that  of  the  pure  article  reminding  one  of  ether, 
the  poorer  grade  like  that  of  decaying  eggs.  The  gas  generated, 
when  mixed  with  air,  is  highly  inflammable;  it  is  heavier  than  air, 
and  is  thus  adapted  to  sinking  down  among  furs,  woollens  and 
grain.  If  breathed  for  any  length  of  time,  it  gives  rise  to  unpleasant 
symptoms,  and  may,  if  inhaled  to  excess  in  a  closed  room,  cause 
sickness  and  even  death.  It  is  not,  however,  as  dangerous  in 
this  connection  as  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  It  is  evident  that  no 
light  of  any  kind  should  be  brought  near  bisulfid  of  carbon  when 
employed  as  a  fumigant. 

How  to  Use. — Commonly,  it  is  used  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds 
of  the  liquid  for  every  1000  cubic  feet  of  space  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  about  70°  F.  In  actual  use  against  the  Angoumois  grain 
moth  it  has  been  found  that  six  pounds  for  each  1000  cubic 
feet  are  necessary.  The  granary,  bin,  room,  chest,  barrel,  or  jar 
must  be  made  as  nearly  tight  as  possible,  and  when  the  liquid  is 
used  in  quantity  it  should  be  placed  in  shallow  dishes  or  pans  to 
facilitate  evaporation.  The  higher  grade  will  not  injure  clothes, 
and  in  any  form  it  will  not  affect  the  germination  qualities  of  seed 
or  render  any  product  unfit  for  human  food.  Its  various  uses  are 
discussed  in  the  following  chapters,  under  the  heads  of  the  insect 
pests  against  which  it  is  employed. 

Treating  Grain  in  Bins. — In  using  this  on  stored  grain,  the 

61 


62  FUMIGATION 

liquid  may  be  poured  directly  on  the  grain.  The  bin  or  warehouse 
is  to  be  first  made  as  tight  as  possible;  heavy  sackcloth  may  be 
placed  on  top  of  grain  in  the  bin.  If  the  bin  is  very  deep,  a  gas 
pipe  with  the  lower  end  plugged,  and  with  holes  drilled  in  the  side 
to  allow  escape  of  liquid,  may  be  thrust  down  into  the  grain.  This 
aids  in  distributing  the  insecticide  at  different  levels.  Two  pounds 
of  liquid  for  every  one  hundred  bushels  of  grain,  or  two  pounds  for 
every  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space  are  advised.  The  process 
should  last  over  night.  The  building  or  bin  should  be  well  aired 
afterward.  Workmen  should  be  cautioned  against  using  lighted 
cigars  or  pipes,  or  lights  of  any  kind,  during  their  work  with  this 
agent  or  while  ventilation  is  in  progress. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas. — -This  is  made  by  uniting  cyanide  of 
potash  or  cyanide  of  soda  with  sulfuric  acid  (H2SC>4) .  Unlike  the 
preceding,  this  gas  is  lighter  than  air.  It  is  not  inflammable  nor 
explosive  at  the  strengths  used  by  entomologists,  but  is  most 
deadly  in  its  effects  upon  man  or  animal  if  inhaled.  In  the  hands 
of  an  expert,  it  is  a  safe  agent,  for  knowledge  of  its  dangerous 
qualities  results  in  intelligent  precautions  in  its  use.  The  odor  of 
the  gas  is  much  like  that  of  peach  pits,  and  the  slightest  trace  of 
such  an  odor  constitutes  a  warning. 

As  an  insecticide  it  is  far  superior  to  bisulfid  of  carbon,  in  that 
it  is  fatal  to  all  stages  of  most  insects,  including  the  egg  stage. 
Only  the  chemically  pure  cyanide  should  be  used  (98  per  cent), 
and  sulfuric  acid  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.83  or  over.  Cyanide  of 
sodium  may  be  used  in  place  of  cyanide  of  potash  if  the  latter 
cannot  be  obtained,  but  should  be  fresh,  and  it  calls  for  one-half 
more  acid  than  does  potassium  cyanide.  For  example,  the  standard 
formula  for  every  one  hundred  cubic  feet  is  one  ounce  cyanide  of 
potash,  one  fluid  ounce  of  commercial  sulfuric  acid,  and  three 
fluid  ounces  of  water ;  if  cyanide  of  soda  is  used  the  formula  would 
be:  Cyanide  of  sodium,  one  ounce;  sulfuric  acid,  one  and  one-half 
fluid  ounces;  water,  four  fluid  ounces.  For  the  fumigation  of 
orchard  trees  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  see  Chapter  XI. 

Fumigating  Scions  and  Other  Nursery  Stock. — Many  states 
require  that  nursery  stock  sold  therein  or  brought  within  the  state 
boundaries  be  fumigated.  Nurserymen,  therefore,  should  know 
how  to  conform  to  these  requirements.  In  fumigating  nursery 
stock,  an  air-tight  box  or  room  should  be  constructed,  cubical 
contents  of  which  can  be  easily  figured.  For  every  one  hundred 
cubic  feet  of  space  use  one  ounce  cyanide  of  potassium,  two  ounces 


FUMIGATING  HOUSES  63 

sulfuric  acid,  and  four  ounces  of  water.  If  cyanide  of  soda  is 
employed,  use  three  ounces  sulfuric  acid.  The  cyanide  should  be 
broken  into  lumps  about  two  inches  in  diameter  and  placed  in 
manila  paper  bags.  Workmen  should  use  gloves.  Water  should 
be  placed  in  earthen  crocks,  large  enough  to  prevent  the  liquid 
from  boiling  over,  the  acid  added,  pouring  it  gently  into  the  water. 
The  acid  should  never  be  poured  into  the  jar  before  the  water. 
This  crock  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  room  or  box,  the  trees  or 
scions  lying  on  racks  above  it.  When  everything  is  ready  the 
proper  charge  of  cyanide — contained  in  a  paper  bag — is  dropped 
into  the  liquid  and  the  box  or  room  tightly  closed.  Exposure  to 
fumes  should  last  about  one  hour,  the  fumigation  chamber  then 
opened  and  allowed  to  air  for  fifteen  minutes.  Stock  to  be  fumi- 
gated should  not  be  wet.  Fumigation  of  nursery  stock  is  far  pref- 
erable to  "dipping."  Where  not  practicable,  however,  stock  may 
be  dipped  in  oil  emulsion  or  lime-sulfur,  avoiding  wetting  the  roots, 
or,  better,  it  may  be  planted  out  and  sprayed  with  these  scalecides. 

The  greatest  care  must  be  observed  in  handling  this  poison  and 
during  the  operation.  In  cleaning  up,  every  particle  of  cyanide 
should  be  accounted  for,  and  all  tools  and  utensils  employed  made 
scrupulously  clean.  One  should  avoid  inhaling  the  dust  in  break- 
ing up  the  cyanide,  and  it  should  be  kept  out  of  sores  or  cuts  in 
the  hands.  (For  the  fumigating  of  mills  with  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas,  see  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Fumigating  Granaries  and  Grain  Bins  with  Hydrocyanic  Acid 
Gas. — This  is  described  on  page  353.  It  is  useful  if  bins  are  empty. 
For  full  bins  carbon  bisulfid  should  be  used  as  directed  under  that 
head.  Both  processes  may  be  resorted  to  for  the  same  building, 
one  following  the  other. 

Fumigating  Houses  with  Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas. — This  process 
is  very  effectual  against  bedbugs,  fleas  and  ants.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  very  dangerous,  and  every  precaution  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
accident.  It  should  not  be  resorted  to  if  other  effective  measures 
are  available.  The  same  general  method  is  followed  as  given  under 
fumigation  of  mills.  All  polished  metal  must  be  protected,  rugs 
and  carpets  safeguarded  against  the  boiling  over  or  breaking  of 
jars,  and  the  house  must  be  left  unoccupied  during  the  fumigation 
and  ventilation.  All  moist  foods  should  be  removed.  Fumigation 
of  one  apartment  of  a  double  house  or  apartment  house  would  be 
attended  with  grave  dangers  to  occupants  of  the  other  apartments. 
As  pointed  out  elsewhere,  in  working  with  this  gas,  one  should 


64 


FUMIGATION 


keep  below  it,  i.e.,  begin  to  fumigate  on  the  top  story  and  work 
down,  while  in  the  use  of  bisulfid  of  carbon  the  reverse  is  necessary, 
and  one  can  work  for  quite  a  long  period  in  the  fumes  of  the  latter 
gas — until  dizziness  is  felt. 

Fumigation  of  Greenhouses  with  Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas.— 
Excellent  for  mealy  bugs,  white  fly,  and  aphids,  but  not  practical 
for  red  spiders  and  scale  insects. 

William  Moore,  of  the  Minnesota  Station,  has  done  some 
excellent  work  in  this  direction,  and  we  are  privileged  to  quote 
from  his  report  as  well  as  from  results  attained  by  Whitmarsh, 
of  Ohio,  and  Davis,  of  Illinois. 

In  the  fumigation  of  greenhouses,  there  are  a  number  of  factors 
to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  most  important  feature  is  to 


FIG.  89. — Diagram  of  greenhouse  with  two  sides  of  roof  equal. 

have  the  greenhouse  accurately  measured,  so  that  one  can  deter- 
mine the  exact  dose  of  chemical  which  is  necessary  to  kill  the  insect 
pests  and  not  destroy  the  plants. 

Contents  of  House. — Figure  89  shows  a  view  of  a  greenhouse 
which  has  both  the  slanting  roofs  equal  and  the  height  of  each 
side  equal.  Such  a  house  is  very  easily  measured  and  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  determined.  In  a  house  of  this  kind,  the  height  AB 
is  multiplied  by  the  width  AE  and  the  result  multiplied  by  the 
length  AH.  This  gives  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  space  in  the 
rectangular  portion  ABDE-H.  The  upper  portion  is  still  to  be 
estimated.  For  this  purpose,  take  the  height  CG  and  subtract 
from  itAB,  the  height  of  the  side.  This  will  give  the  height  of  the 
line  CF.  Multiply  CF  by  the  width  FB  (which  equals  GA  or  half 
AE).  This  will  give  the  number  of  square  feet  in  the  section  BCD. 
The  number  of  square  feet  in  BCD  is  multiplied  by  the  length  AH, 


FUMIGATION  OF  GREENHOUSES 


65 


giving  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  green- 
house, which,  added  to  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  the  lower 
portion,  gives  the  capacity  of  the  greenhouse  in  cubic  feet. 

Many  greenhouses  have  the  sides  unequal  and  the  slopes  of 
the  house  unequal,  as  shown  in  figure  90.  In  such  a-  greenhouse, 
one  must  multiply  the  height  AB  by  the  width  of  the  rectangular 
portion  A  BIG,  which  width  is  AG,  G  being  a  point  immediately 
underneath  the  highest  portion  of  the  roof.  The  same  is  done 
for  the  rectangular  portion  DEGF.  We  then  have  two  triangular 
portions  still  to  compute.  Multiplying  CI  by  IB  and  dividing 
by  two  gives  the  number  of  square  feet  in  the  portion  CIB.  The 
same  is  done  for  the  triangle  DCF:  that  is,  DF  is  multiplied  by 
CF  and  divided  by  two. 

The  number  of  square  feet  in  these  four  sections  are  then  added 
together  to  give  the  sum-total  of  square  feet  in  the  end  of  the 


FIG.  90. — Diagram  showing  roof  with  unequal  sides. 

greenhouse.  This  sum  is  now  multiplied  by  AH  to  get  the  cubic 
feet  in  the  house. 

Amount  of  Chemical. — After  having  carefully  estimated  the 
number  of  cubic  feet,  the  next  point  to  determine  is  the  amount 
of  the  chemicals  to  be  used.  This  varies  according  to  the  plants 
which  are  present.  Some  plants  are  more  susceptible  to  cyanide 
gas  than  other  plants,  and  where  there  are  a  number  of  different 
plants  in  the  same  house  the  amount  of  material  to  be  used  should 
be  such  that  it  will  not  injure  the  most  tender  variety. 

Two  other  factors  which  are  most  important  are  the  tempera- 
ture and  the  humidity  in  the  house.  Plants  are  always  more 
readily  injured  in  a  house  where  the  temperature  is  low,  say  60 
degrees,  than  they  are  when  the  temperature  is  high,  as,  for  example, 
70  to  80  degrees.  The  more  moisture  in  the  house  the  more  apt 
the  plants  are  to  be  injured,  so  that  the  house  should  be  just  as 
dry  as  is  possible,  considering  the  plants  which  are  in  it. 


66  FUMIGATION 

Some  plants  can  never  be  fumigated,  or  have  never  been  suc- 
cessfully fumigated.  Roses,  carnations,  and  chrysanthemums  can 
be  successfully  fumigated  to  kill  aphids  and  white  fly  under  proper 
conditions.  The  plants  may  even  be  in  full  bloom. 

Plants  should  not  be  watered  just  before  fumigation.  In  fact, 
it  would  be  well  if  the  plants  had  not  been  watered  for  twenty- 
four  hours  before  the  process.  The  temperature  should  be  about 
68  to  70  degrees,  and  the  fumigation  must  be  done  at  night;  even 
on  a  cloudy  day  it  is  apt  to  burn  the  foliage,  while  some  entomolo- 
gists seem  to  think  it  advisable  not  to  fumigate  on  a  bright  moon- 
light night.  However,  the  moon  does  not  seem  to  affect  results. 
The  materials  used  in  fumigation  with  cyanide  are  potassium 
cyanide,  sulfuric  acid,  and.  water.  The  usual  formula  is:  One 
ounce  potassium  cyanide,  two  fluid  ounces  sulfuric  acid,  and  three 
fluid  ounces  water.  Some  prefer  to  use  as  much  as  six  fluid  ounces 
of  water  to  one  ounce  of  sulfuric  acid.  The  more  water  that  is 
used,  the  slower  the  gas  is  generated  and  the  more  evenly  it  is 
probably  distributed.  The  sulfuric  acid  is  slowly  added  to  the 
water,  which  is  contained  in  an  earthenware  jar,  constantly  stir- 
ring. The  earthenware  jar  is  necessary,  inasmuch  as  metal  will 
be  acted  upon  by  the  sulfuric  acid.  The  resulting  mixture  will  be 
hot,  and  the  broken  cyanide  is  added  to  it  while  still  hot. 

The  dose  which  is  in  general  use  is  from  one  ounce  to  five  ounces 
of  potassium  cyanide  per  thousand  cubic  feet.  It  would  be  well 
to  first  try  the  lighter  dose,  and  if  the  insects  are  not  killed  and  the 
plants  are  uninjured,  a  stronger  dose  should  be  used.  For  overnight 
fumigation  use  one-quarter  to  one-half  ounce  per  thousand  cubic 
feet  rather  than  a  heavy  charge  for  a  short  time.  Under  these  con- 
ditions there  will  be  no  danger  in  airing  out  the  following  morning. 

It  would  be  well  to  advise  the  use  of  not  more  than  one-quarter 
of  an  ounce  for  the  first  dose  to  each  thousand  cubic  feet  for  over- 
night use,  and  not  more  than  three  ounces  per  thousand  cubic 
feet  for  fumigation  for  a  half  hour.  If  either  of  these  doses  is 
used,  and  the  insects  are  not  killed  while  the  plants  show  no  injury, 
the  amount  of  cyanide  per  thousand  cubic  feet  could  be  increased, 
but  not  exceeding  five  or  six  ounces  per  thousand  cubic  feet  as  a 
maximum  quantity. 

Precautions. — The  gas  is  extremely  poisonous,  as  is  also  the 
case  with  the  potassium  cyanide.  For  that  reason  it  is  best  not 
to  be  in  the  house  at  the  time  that  the  cyanide  is  to  be  placed  in 
the  jars.  This  can  be  arranged  by  putting  the  cyanide  in  bags 
tied  to  a  string  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  end  of  the  string  to  be 


HEATED  ROOMS  67 

extended  to  the  outside  of  the  house,  so  that  the  cyanide  can  then 
be  lowered  into  a  jar  while  the  person  is  on  the  outside  of  the  house. 

When  a  large  greenhouse  is  to  be  fumigated,  it  would  be  well 
to  have  several  jars,  so  that  the  gas  will  be  thoroughly  distributed 
throughout  the  greenhouse. 

If  heavy  bags  are  used  for  the  cyanide,  the  jars  can  be  placed 
in  order  and  a  bag  placed  beside  each  jar.  When  all  is  ready,  move 
rapidly  along  the  row  of  jars,  placing  the  bags  in  the  acid,  and  leave 
the  house  at  once. 

Ventilators  should  be  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  they  can 
be  opened  from  the  outside  to  air  the  house. 

One  should  be  careful  to  remove  cats  or  any  other  pets  from 
the  house  before  the  fumigation  is  started.  If  the  cat  is  forgotten, 
one  should  not  go  into  the  house  to  get  it  after  the  cyanide  is 
started;  in  fact,  under  no  circumstances  should  the  house  be 
entered  after  the  fumigation  is  started  until  such  time  as  the  house 
has  been  thoroughly  ventilated. 

Directions  for  Using  Sulfur. — Rooms  should  be  made  tight  by 
stuffing  all  cracks  or  pasting  paper  over  them.  Iron,  steel  and 
nickel  are  also  attacked  by  sulfur  fumes.  Nickel  fittings  and  gilt 
frames,  copper,  silver  and  steel  utensils  should  be  removed,  though 
metal  may  be  protected  by  smearing  it  with  vaseline.  Use  two  to 
three  pounds  of  sulfur  for  every  thousand  cubic  feet.  Place  vessel 
holding  sulfur  in  a  larger  dish  of  water.  A  half  pint  of  wood  alcohol 
mixed  with  the  above  amount  of  sulfur  will  cause  same  to  burn 
freely;  or  sulfur  candles  may  be  used. 

Heated  Rooms. — Most  insects,  particularly  those  in  mills,  will 
succumb  if  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  123  to  125  degrees  F.  for 
several  hours.  Dean,  of  Kansas,  first  demonstrated  this  with  mill 
insects,  and  where  such  temperature  can  be  safely  maintained  in 
mill,  warehouses,  or  dwelling  it  is  recommended. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  method  of  fumigating  grain  or    seed  with  carbon    bisulfid. 

What  precautions  must  be  observed? 

2.  Describe  methods  of  fumigating  a  greenhouse  with  hydrocj'anic  acid  gas 

and  tell  what  precautions  should  be  observed. 

3.  How  is  nursery  stock  fumigated? 

4.  Give  directions  for  the  use  of  sulfur  as  a  fumigant. 

5.  Enumerate  the  dangers  in  the  use  of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  and  tell  what 

precautions  should  be  observed  in  its  use. 

6.  In  what  ways  is  fumigation  with  bisulfid  of   carbon  dangerous  and  what 

precautions  are  to  be  observed? 

7.  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  good  spraying  outfit? 

8.  What  precautions  are  necessary  in  preparing  and  applying  a  liquid  spray? 

9.  What  are  the  objections  to  spraying  fruit  trees  while  in  bloom? 


CHAPTER  VII 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 

THE  apple  is  so  universally  grown  and  is  such  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  our  food  supply  that  conditions  surrounding  its  growth  have 
been  perhaps  more  carefully  studied  than  those  of  any  other  tree, 
and  the  various  insect  pests  attacking  it  have  been  the  subject  of 
careful  investigation  on  the  part  of  entomologists.  The  results 
of  some  of  this  work  are  given  in  this  chapter. 

INSECTS    ATTACKING    THE    TRUNK    AND    BRANCHES 

The  Flat-headed  Apple  Tree  Borer.— The  adult  is  a  broadly- 
flattened,  metallic  bronze-colored  beetle  (Chrysobothris  femorata 
Fab.).  It  is  about  two-thirds  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  short 
antennae,  conspicuous  eyes,  and  a  more  or  less  ornamented  back. 

The  males  are  smaller  than  the 
females  (Fig.  91).  It  is  fre- 
quently seen  during  the  spring 
and  summer  months,  first  ap- 
pearing in  May  or  June  upon 
the  trunks  of  the  trees. 

Life  History  and  Habits.— 
The  female  oviposits  in  cracks 
or  under  the  bark.  Diseased 
or  dying  trees  are  preferred. 
It  attacks  both  fruit  and  forest 
trees,  notably  young  trees. 
Sometimes  maple  trees  may 
be  infested.  The  eggs  are  yellow  and  usually  several  are  grouped 
together.  The  larva  is  large,  legless,  and  with  a  broad,  flat 
head.  It  works  into  the  wood,  digging  irregular  flat  channels, 
sometimes  completely  girdling  a  tree.  Its  presence  is  often  indi- 
cated by  sawdust-like  excrement  on  the  bark.  The  winter  is 
spent  in  the  larval  stage,  possibly  occasionally  as  pupa.  Ordinarily 
it  pupates  in  the  spring,  just  under  the  bark — the  pupal  stage 
being  very  short,  approximately  three  weeks.  When  the  adult 
beetle  emerges  from  the  trunk,  it  leaves  an  elliptical  hole  in  the 
bark,  while  the  hole  left  by  the  following  borer  is  round. 
68 


FIG.  91. — Flat-headed  apple-tree  borer. 
(U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


ROUND-HEADED  APPLE  TREE  BORER 


69 


Control. — Encourage  the  presence  of  woodpeckers.  Cut  borers 
out  when  discovered,  if  possible,  without  seriously  injuring  the 
tree.  Place  limbs  in  the  sun  around  the  orchard  to  attract  the 
beetles  during  the  egg-laying  period.  Burn  this  infested  wood 
the  following  fall  or  winter.  Practice  clean  culture  and  proper 
pruning.  Plant  healthy  stock.  See  also  remedies  for  round-headed 
borer. 

The  Round-headed  Apple  Tree  Borer. — (Saperda  Candida  Fab.) . 
—The  adults  have  two  dorsal  white  lines  on  the  back  (Fig.  92). 

Life  History  and  Habits. — Adults  appear  in  spring  and  summer. 
Females  oviposit  in  incisions  in  the  bark  made  with  the  mandibles. 


FIG.   92. — Round-headed  apple  tree  borer;  a  and  b,  two  views  of  the  larva;  b,  pupa,  c,  adult. 
(U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Ag.) 

The  puncture  is  then  closed  with  a  gummy  fluid.  The  pale- 
brownish  eggs  are  placed  singly.  The  time  required  for  hatching 
is  in  doubt.  The  larvae  work  inward  and  feed  on  the  sap  wood, 
working  up  and  down  the  tree.  After  resting  during  the  winter, 
they  resume  action  in  the  spring.  They  work  into  the  heart  wood 
during  the  second  season,  spending  their  second  winter  as  larvae, 
and  entering  the  pupal  stage  during  May  and  June.  They  emerge 
as  adults  about  two  weeks  later.  Two  years,  therefore,  are  re- 
quired to  reach  the  adult  stage. 

Control. — Cut  out  larvae  when  possible.  To  prevent  egg- 
laying  in  the  bark,  paint  the  trees  in  the  spring  with  a  mixture 
of  soft  soap  and  carbolic  acid.  Boil  one  quart  of  soft  soap  or 
one  pound  hard  soap  in  two  gallons  of  water;  then  add  one  pint 


70      INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 

of  crude  carbolic  acid.  A  little  Paris  green  and  lime  will  make  the 
mixture  more  valuable.  Wrap  the  tree-trunks  with  paper  in  the 
spring.  Paint  the  trunks  with  strong  whale  oil  soap  wash;  or 
paint  with  good,  so-called  "tree  paint"  which  is  made  up  with 
water,  not  oil.  A  very  good  wash  for  tree-trunks  on  larger  branches 
is  the  "government  whitewash."  The  recipe  is  as  follows: 

Government  Whitewash.— Slake  half  a  bushel  of  quicklime 
with  boiling  water,  keeping  it  covered  during  the  process.  Strain 
it  and  add  a  peck  of  salt,  dissolved  in  warm  water;  three  pounds 
of  ground  rice  put  in  boiling  water  and  boiled  to  a  thin  paste ;  half 
a  pound  of  Spanish  whiting  and  a  pound  of  clear  glue,  dissolved 
in  warm  water;  mix  these  together  well,  and  let  the  mixture  stand 
for  several  days.  Keep  the  wash  thus  prepared  in  a  kettle  or  port- 
able furnace;  and  when  used,  put  it  on  as  warm  as  possible,  with 
painters'  or  whitewash  brushes. 

The  San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comstock). — This 
very  destructive  scale  attacks  all  parts  of  the  tree  above  the 
ground.  The  scale  is  frequently  seen  on  fruit  or  young  twigs 
accompanied  by  a  red  discoloration  around  each  scale.  It  imparts 
a  grayish,  roughened  appearance  to  the  bark  when  very  abundant. 

Life  History  and  Habits.— This  insect  spends  nearly  all  of  its 
life  under  the  scale ;  is  active  only  as  a  young  larva  and  as  a  mature 
winged  male.  Both  sexes  hibernate  when  half  grown  under  the 
scale.  Males  reach  maturity  early  in  the  spring,  fertilize  the 
females,  and  disappear.  Later,  the  latter  give  birth  to  living  young. 
There  are  probably  four  generations  in  a  year  in  favorable  localities. 
The  young  larva,  yellow  in  color,  moves  about  to  find  a  suitable 
place  to  attach  itself.  When  about  to  become  stationary,  the 
scale  is  formed — the  insect  becoming  covered  with  it  in  two  days. 
The  young  scale  is  whitish,  turning  darker  with  age.  The  scale 
of  the  female  is  convex,  with  a  yellowish  and  shining  nipple  in  the 
center.  The  first  moult  occurs  when  the  scale  is  twelve  days  old, 
after  which  males  and  females  take  different  form.  The  scale  of 
the  male  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  female  and  somewhat  elon- 
gated, the  nipple  being  near  one  end.  The  females  pass  the  second 
moult  when  about  twenty  days  old,  becoming  adult  at  the  age  of 
thirty  days  (Fig.  93). 

This  pest  spreads  quickly  on  nursery  stock  by  blowing  from 
tree  to  tree,  and  is  also  carried  upon  the  feet  of  birds  and  on  the 
bodies  of  large  insects.  The  English  sparrow  has  been  recently 
shown  to  be  a  prominent  means  of  dispersal. 


FIG.  93. — San  Jos6  scale.  1,  female  scales,  nipples  lateral;  2  and  4,  adult  females  with 
young;  3,  male  scale;  all  much  enlarged.  5,  adult  female  scale,  natural  size  on  apple;  6,  dis- 
coloration of  fruit  by  growing  scales.  (After  Hall,  Lowe  and  Parrott,  N.  Y.  (Geneva) 
Bull.  193  and  194.) 


72 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


Control. — Spray  the  trees  twice — once  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
are  fallen,  and,  second,  in  the  early  spring,  as  soon  as  the  buds 
swell.  Use  lime-sulfur  wash  each  time.  The  old  rough  bark  on 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  should  be  scraped  off  before  applying  the 
winter  spray,  so  that  every  portion  may  be  wet  with  the  liquid. 

Lime-sulfur  Wash. — Lime,  four  pounds;  sulfur,  three  pounds; 
water,  ten  gallons;  or,  better,  purchase  commercial  lime-sulfur 
and  use  according  to  directions  on  can. 


FIG.  94. — Oyster-shell  scale  or  bark  louse:  a, female  scale  from  below  filled  with  eggs; 
b,  same  from  above;  c,  infested  twig;  d,  male  scale;  e,  twig  infested  with  male  scale.  (U.  S. 
Bu.  Ent.) 

Summer  sprays  are  hardly  effective  and  should  be  resorted  to 
only  when  winter  spraying  has  been  neglected.  Dilute  lime-sulfur 
(see  directions)  or  whale  oil  soap  (one  pound  to  four  or  five  gallons) 
or  dilute  miscible  oils  may  be  used  at  this  season. 

The  Oyster-shell  Scale  (Lepidosaphes  ulmi  Linn.). — These 
have  been  introduced  from  Europe.  The  scales  are  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  long,  brownish  in  color,  and  are  somewhat  like  the  shell  of  the 
oyster  in  shape.  The  white  eggs  are  found  under  the  scales  in  winter. 


SCTKFY  SCALE 


73 


Life  History  and  Habits.— They  hatch  in  May  or  early  June. 
Like  the  preceding  species,  the  young  seek  new  locations  on  the 
same  tree,  and,  becoming  fixed,  insert  their  beaks  in  the  bark. 
The  complete  scale  excreted  from  the  body  of  the  insect  gradually 
covers  it.  By  the  middle  of  August  the  female  scale  has  become 
transformed  into  a  mass  of  eggs  under  the  scale,  and,  day  by  day, 
as  these  are  laid,  her  body  shrivels  until,  finally,  it  becomes  scarcely 
noticeable  at  the  end  of  the  scale.  Male  scales  are  smaller  than 
the  female  and  are  seldom  seen  (Fig.  94). 

The  young  scale  retains  the  power  of  motion  only  a  few  days 
after  hatching,  and  does  not  spread  far,  if  nothing  intervenes  to 
help  it.  It  may  be  spread 
by  being  carried  on  the  feet  ^  A,  ? 
of  birds  or  large  insects,  and 
nursery  stock  should  be  care-  ^ 
fully  examined  for  it.  It  is 
a  striking  fact  that  a  tree 
may  be  thickly  covered  with 
this  scale  and  yet  not  seri- 
ously suffer,  while  a  half  or 
a  quarter  of  that  number  of 
San  Jose  scale  insects,  if 
present,  will  cause  the  death 
of  the  tree. 

Control.  —  Use  lime- 
sulfur  spray  in  the  dormant 
season  as  with  the  San  Jose 
scale. 

The  Scurfy  Scale  (Chionaspis  furfurus  Fitch). — This  scale  is 
quite  common  on  apple  trees.  The  female's  scale  is  oblong,  taper- 
ing to  almost  a  point  at  one  end;  grayish  white  in  color  and  about 
one-tenth  inch  long.  The  male  scale  is  much  narrower  and  smaller 
(Fig.  95).  There  is  only  one  brood  a  year.  The  eggs  are  purplish- 
red  in  color.  They  remain  under  the  old  female  scale  during  the 
winter  and  hatch  in  early  spring.  The  young  move  a  short  distance 
on  the  trees  and  settle  down  permanently.  The  scale  covering 
begins  to  develop  soon  after. 

Control. — The  lime-sulfur  should  be  applied  in  late  winter  or 
early  spring.  The  lime-sulfur  solution  does  not  appear  to  kill  the 
eggs  of  this  insect,  and  its  application  should  be  made  just  before 
the  buds  open  in  spring  in  order  to  catch  the  young  larvae.  Or 


FIG.  95. — Scurfy  scale:  a,  twig  infested  with 
female  scale;  6,  twig  infested  with  male  scales; 
c,  female;  d,  male. 


74 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


we  may  use  whale  oil  soap,  one  pound  to  four  or  five  gallons  of 
water.  In  June  use  the  same  remedies  as  given  for  San  Jose  scale. 
For  any  scale,  pruning  of  fruit  trees  should  be  practiced  before 
winter  or  early  spring  treatment  with  sprays,  in  order  that  all 
parts  of  the  tree  may  be  better  reached  by  the  liquid.  It  is  desir- 
able to  burn  all  prunings  from  infested  trees. 

The  Putnam  Scale  (Aspidiotus  ancylus  Putn.). — This  is  not  a 
serious  pest,  but  is  of  considerable  importance,  because  it  resembles 
the  San  Jose  scale  so  closely.  In  color  it  is  dark  gray.  The  female 
is  circular  and  about  one-twelfth  inch  in  diameter.  This  differs 

from  the  San  Jos£  scale  in  being 
slightly  larger.  It  usually  has  a 
conspicuous  or  orange  nipple  a 
little  to  one  side  of  the  center, 
surrounded  by  a  concentric  de- 
pression less  conspicuous  than 
in  the  San  Jose  scale.  Dis- 
persal of  this  scale  is  less  rapid 

than  the  Iast-named> and  the 

injury  caused  is  less  severe. 
The  young  cluster  more  about 
the  parent,  thus  making  a  more 
uneven  infestation. 

The  insects  pass  the  winter 
in  the  immature  stage  on  the 
bark,  completing  their  growth 
in  the  spring,  at  which  time  the 
two-winged  males  emerge.  The 
females  lay  from  thirty  to  forty 

FIG.  96. — Buffalo  tree  hopper  (a),  infested  twig     eff£S    late    in     the    Spring,    Under 
and  eggs  (c  and  d).     (After  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.)  * 

the  scale.  The  fact  that  they 

are  oviparous  instead  of  viviparous  is  another  mark  distinguishing 
them  from  the  San  Jose"  scale.  There  is  supposed  to  be  but  one 
generation. 

Control. — Use  lime-sulfur  spray  when  trees  are  dormant. 

The  Buffalo  Tree-hopper  (Ceresa  bubalus  Fab.). — This  is  a 
jumping  insect  capable  of  strong  flight.  It  is  about  one-third 
inch  long,  light-green  in  color,  with  whitish  dots  and  a  pale  yellow- 
ish streak  along  each  side.  A  sharp  point  upon  each  side  of  the 
front  is  seen  jutting  out  horizontally,  reminding  one  of  a  horn 
and  suggesting  the  name.  The  body  is  three-sided  and  has  been 


BUFFALO  TREE-HOPPER 


75 


FIG.   97. — Branches  of  apple  tree  broken  by  over-bearing.    In  these  the  fruit-tree  bark-beetle 
was  found  breeding  in  great  numbers.     (After  Brooks,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


76 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


likened  to  a  beechnut.    The  insect  lives  by  sucking  the  sap  through 
a  sharp-pointed  beak. 

Life  History. — Adults  appear  about  the  middle  of  May  and 
continue  egg-laying  through  August  and  September.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  two  nearly  parallel  slits,  each  containing  from  six  to 


Fia.   98. — Woolly  aphis  on  branch  of  young  apple. 

twelve  eggs.  These  slits  run  lengthwise  of  the  branch  and  are 
about  three-sixteenths  inch  long,  separated  by  about  one-eighth 
inch  of  bark  (Fig.  96).  This  provision  is  important,  as  the  tips  of 
the  slits  meet  and  cause  a  deadening  of  the  wood,  which  prevents 
the  eggs  being  crushed.  Cold  weather  kills  the  adults,  but  the 
eggs  winter  in  the  branches,  hatching  in  spring  or  early  June. 

Control. — Spraying  specifically  for  this  insect  has  not  proved 
effective,  even  against  the  young  hoppers,  since  these  infest  vege- 


WOOLLY  APHIS 


77 


tation  in  proximity  to  the  apple  trees,  but  proper  spraying  for 
other  insects  would  be  of  some  service  in  checking  attacks.  Clean 
cultivation  of  the  orchard  is  one  of  the  best  preventives. 

The  Fruit  Bark  Beetle  (Scolytus  rugulosus  Ratz).— (Fig.  97.) 
See  chapter  on  Plum,  Peach  and  Cherry  Insects,  page  113. 

The  Woolly  Louse  or  Woolly 
Aphis  (Schizoneura  lanigera 
Hausmann).  —  Bluish  -  white, 
flocculent,  or  cottony  patches, 
wrapping  clusters  of  the  lice, 
are  noted  on  the  lower  part  of 
trunks  or  on  branches  of  young 
trees  (Fig.  98),  particularly 
abundant  on  water  -  sprouts. 
There  is  a  root  form,  also, 
which  is  more  injurious  (Fig. 
99) .  This  insect  causes  gall-like 
swellings  in  cracks  of  which  it 
lives  in  clusters.  A  winged 
form  also  occurs  during  the 
season.  The  wingless  lice  are 
one-tenth  inch  long;  reddish- 
brown,  covered  with  character- 
istic cottony  or  waxy  secretion. 

Life  History. — The  woolly 
aphis  lives  over  winter  on  the 
trunks  and  branches  when  the 
season  is  not  too  severe.  The 
exact  length  of  life  of  the  adult 
is  not  known.  Females  give 
birth  to  living  young  for  an 
indefinite  period.  The  larvae, 
when  first  born,  have  not  the  white  secretion  which  soon  appears 
when  they  begin  to  feed. 

Injury. — As  a  result  of  the  work  of  this  pest,  the  bark  becomes 
deeply  pitted,  or  large  cavities  are  formed.  The  tree  ceases  to 
grow  at  the  point  of  attack.  On  roots  it  produces  gall-like  swell- 
ings. If  abundant,  the  tree  loses  its  vitality  on  account  of  the  loss 
of  sap,  coupled,  perhaps,  by  transmission  of  a  poison  by  the  insect. 
This  insect  is  likely  to  be  extremely  abundant  on  any  injured  por- 
tion of  the  tree. 


FIG.  99. — Woolly  aphis,  root  form:  a, 
deformed  root;  6,  root  covered  with  aphids; 
c.rootlouse, female,  much  enlarged.  (Marlatt, 
U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


78 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


Control. — Dig  up  and  burn  badly  infested  trees,  using  ground 
for  another  purpose  for  a  time.  For  the  bark  form  of  louse,  use 
any  of  the  washes  recommended  for  plant  lice,  such  as  kerosene 
emulsion,  strong  soap  wash,  tobacco  extracts,  resin  wash,  etc., 
applied  with  sufficent  force  to  penetrate  the  cottony  cover.  Sprays 
are  best  applied  warm.  Bands  of  tanglefoot  about  the  base  of 
trunk  in  early  spring  may  keep  many  of  the  root  forms  from 
ascending. 

The  New  York  Weevil  (Ithycerus  noveboracensis  Forst.).— 
This  is  one  of  the  largest  of  our  snout  beetles  or  curculios;  at  least 
a  half -inch  long;  ash-colored,  marked  with  black,  with  four  whitish 
lines  on  each  wing-cover,  interrupted  by  black 
dots  (Fig.  100).  Three  smaller  whitish  lines 
on  the  thorax;  a  yellowish  spot  on  the  back, 
at  the  junction  of  wing  case  and  thorax.  The 
larva  or  grub  is  footless,  pale  yellow,  with  a 
tawny  head. 

Life  History. — The  adult  appears  in  May 
or  June,  the  female  depositing  her  eggs  usually 
in  oak  or  hickory  trees.  She  usually  makes  a 
longitudinal  incision  with  her  jaws,  eating 
under  the  bark;  then  turns  and  deposits  her 
eggs  in  the  opening.  The  larval  stage  is  passed 
in  the  oak  or  hickory,  and  damage  to  orchards 
is  naturally  greatest  near  woodlands. 

Injury. — The  adult  injures  apple  and  other 
100.— New  York  fruit  trees  by  eating  the  buds  and  bark  of 
twigs.  Later,  leaves  are  eaten  off  at  the  base. 
The  beetle  is  active  at  night  and  prefers  the 
tender,  succulent  shoots  of  the  apple,  but  also  feeds  upon  pear  and 
plum,  as  well  as  peach  in  localities  where  the  latter  is  grown. 

Control. — Practice  jarring  of  the  trees  as  for  plum  curculio 
(which  see).  Spray  with  arsenicals  early  in  the  spring,  just  as  the 
buds  are  swelling. 

The  Apple  Twig  Borer. — This  insect  is  commonly  found  attack- 
ing the  small  twigs  of  apple  trees.  See  the  discussion  under  grape 
insects,  pages  155  and  157. 

INSECTS  INJURING  THE  LEAVES 

The  Apple  Tree  Tent  Caterpillar  (Malacosoma  americana 
Fab.). — The  adult  insect  is  a  dull,  reddish-brown  moth  with  stout 


FIG. 

weevil,   infested    twig  (a), 
larva  (6),  adult  (c). 


APPLE  TREE  TENT  CATERPILLAR 


79 


body;  and  in  the  female  a  wing  expanse  of  one  and  one-half  to  two 
inches;  in  the  male,  about  one  and  one-half  inches.  In  each  sex 
there  occur  two  nearly  parallel,  whitish  lines  running  obliquely 
across  the  front  of  the  wings. 

The  larva  or  caterpillar  is  two  inches  long  when  mature,  cylin- 


Fia.   101. — American  tent  caterpillar  (Lugger). 

drical,  deep  black  with  white  stripe  along  the  back  and  also  with 
lateral  markings;  on  each  side,  a  row  of  oval,  blue  dots  occur 
(Fig.  101).  The  body  is  sparsely  clothed  with  fine  yellowish  hairs. 
The  larvae  live  in  conspicuous  nests  made  of  layers  of  silk,  fre- 
quently with  room  for  the  caterpillars  between  the  layers. 


80  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 

Life  History. — One  generation  is  produced  each  year.  The 
sexes  mate  soon  after  emergence  and  eggs  are  deposited  on  limbs 
and  twigs.  The  female  deposits  from  150  to  200  eggs  in  early 
midsummer,  the  eggs  encircling  the  smaller  twigs  (Fig.  102). 
These  eggs  stand  on  end  and  are  covered  with  a  waterproof 
coating  secreted  by  the  female.  The  caterpillars  develop,  but 
remain  within  the  egg  until  the  following  spring.  Upon  the  arrival 
of  warm  weather,  they  gnaw  through  the  shells,  often  before  the 
leaves  come  out.  In  that  event  they  feed  upon  the  glutinous  cover- 
ing of  the  egg  mass  (Fig.  102). 

As  stated  above,  the  caterpillars  live  in  silken  nests  or  webs 
and  feed  on  foliage  at  regular  intervals — morning,  afternoon,  and 
night.  The  older  caterpillars  wander  away  from  the 
nest  and  feed  upon  such  plants  as  they  find.  They 
pupate  approximately  six  weeks  from  the  time  of 
hatching,  in  any  secluded  place,  under  loose  bark,  in 
grass,  or  brush,  under  trees,  along  fences,  and  on  the 
sides  of  sheds,  houses  and  in  other  similar  situations. 
The  pupal  case  or  cocoon  is  composed  of  white  or 
yellowish-white  webbing,  and  the  pupal  stage  lasts 
about  ten  days. 

Control. — Remove  all  useless  trees,  such  as  wild 
cherry  and  worthless  apple  trees,  growing  along  road- 
sides or  fences.     Destroy  egg  masses  during  dormant 
FIG.  102.—     period  of  trees  by  pruning  and  burning  the  cuttings. 

Egg     mass     of     ~  .,,  ,     *       .,  „      .  f 

American  tent  Caterpillars,  when  they  first  appear,  may  frequently 
caterpillar.  be  kmed  by  crughmg  ^ftfo  the  j^^  Later  the  nests 

may  be  burned.  Arsenical  sprays  such  as  arsenate  of  lead  are  very 
effective  against  these  and  all  leaf -eating  forms  of  insects.  Use  two 
or  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  fifty  gallons  of  water.  This 
poison,  when  used  as  a  spray  against  the  codling  moth  or  combined 
with  a  fungicide,  easily  keeps  this  pest  in  check. 

The  Tentless  Caterpillar  or  Forest  Tent  Caterpillar  (Mala- 
cosomadistriaJIlm.). — This  pest  in  the  caterpillar  stage  somewhat 
resembles  the  previously  discussed  insect,  with  which  it  might  be 
confounded.  It  does  not,  however,  form  a  nest.  The  adult  moth 
is  yellowish-brown,  with  a  wing  expanse  of  one  and  one-half  inches. 
It  has  two  oblique,  brown  lines  on  the  fore  wings,  enclosing  a 
darker  space. 

The  caterpillar  is  slightly  smaller  than  the  apple  tent  cater- 
pillar. The  general  color  is  a  pale  blue,  tinged  with  green  on  the 


FOREST  TENT  CATERPILLAR 


81 


sides  and  everywhere  sprinkled  with  black  dots  or  points.  There 
is  a  row  of  white  spots  along  the  middle,  an  orange-yellow  stripe 
on  each  side  of  this  row  of  spots.  Below  the  yellow  stripe  is  another 
cream-colored  stripe,  all  stripes  being  edged  with  black.  Each 
segment  of  the  caterpillar  has  two  elevated  black  points  in  the  back 
from  which  arise  a  bundle  of  coarse  hairs.  The  back  is  clothed 
with  whitish  hairs.  The  head 
is  dark  blue,  freckled  with  black 
dots,  also  clothed  with  black  and 
rufous  hairs.  The  legs  are  black 
with  whitish  hairs  (Fig.  104). 

Life  History  and  Habits. — 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall  in 
rings  around  the  twigs.  The 
clusters  of  eggs  are  cut  off 
squarely  at  the  ends,  differing 
from  the  egg-clusters  of  the  tent 
caterpillar,  which  taper  to  the 
twig.  There  are  from  200  to 
400  eggs  in  each  cluster,  whitish 
covered  with  a  brown,  varnish- 
like  substance.  They  hatch  so 
early  in  the  spring  that  the 
caterpillars  have  to  wait  for 
green  food  and  have  been  known 
to  live  three  weeks  in  quite  cold 
weather  without  eating.  When 
the  leaves  appear,  they  grow 
faster,  and  march  over  the  tree 
in  regular  order.  They  feed 
twice  a  day.  Wherever  they  go, 
they  spin  a  thread,  but  do  not 
make  webs,  nests,  nor  tent. 
Although  gregarious  when 
young  (Fig.  105),  the  individ- 
uals spread  when  older  and  are  seen  wandering  along  fences, 
houses,  roads,  etc.,  in  search  of  suitable  shelter  in  which  to 
change  to  pupae.  After  two  or  three  days,  they  transform  to 
reddish-brown  pupae  covered  with  short  yellowish  hairs.  Moths 
appear  about  ten  days  later,  deposit  eggs,  and  die.  This  occurs 
in  midsummer  and  only  a  single  brood  is  produced  in  a  season. 
6 


FIG.    103. — American    tent    caterpillars   just 
hatched.    Also  egg  mass  on  right.    (Lugger.) 


82 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


This  insect  eats  foliage  of  apple,  plum,  fruit  trees,  and  several  of 
the  forest  trees. 

Control. — Gather  and  destroy  egg-clusters  in  winter.  The 
larvae  are  easily  kept  in  check  by  poison  sprays,  preferably  arsenate 
of  lead.  Spray  with  this  compound  as  for  the  codling  moth. 

The  Apple  Leaf  Aphis  (Aphis  mali  Fab.). — This  is  a  serious 
pest,  particularly  on  young  trees.  The  leaves,  when  attacked, 
curl  up  and  may  drop  off. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  black  winter  eggs  of  these 
lice  are  frequently  seen  on  the  axils  of  the  buds  in  late  fall  and  win- 
ter. These  eggs  hatch  in  early  spring,  each  egg  producing  what  is 


FIQ.  104. — Forest  tent  caterpillar:  a,  egg  mass  (compare  with  egg  mass  of  American 
tent  caterpillar) ;  6,  moth,  enlarged;  c,  top  of  enlarged  egg;  d,  side  view  of  three  enlarged  eggs. 
(After  Riley.) 

known  as  the  "  stem-mother,"  dark  green  in  color.  These  stem- 
mothers  work  into  the  folds  of  the  opening  leaves,  insert  their 
beaks  into  the  tissues,  and  feed  upon  the  sap.  In  favorable  weather 
they  become  adult  in  about  two  weeks  and  give  birth  to  living 
young  at  the  rate  of  from  three  to  twelve  a  day  for  about  three 
weeks,  each  stem-mother  producing  from  75  to  100  individuals. 
These  first  insects  are  always  wingless  females.  The  fol- 
lowing generations  during  the  summer  are  all  viviparous  females. 
The  second  generation  is  slightly  larger  than  the  first.  A  small 
percentage  of  individuals  of  this  generation  are  winged.  Many 
of  the  third  generation  are  winged,  scattering  to  nearby  trees  to 
start  new  colonies.  The  wingless  forms  are  larger  and  somewhat 


APPLE  LEAF  HOPPER 


83 


more  injurious  than  the  winged  forms.  Late  in  the  summer, 
winged  forms  become  less  numerous. 

True  sexual  males  and  females  are  developed  about  September 

—the  males  being  smaller  than  the  females  and  both  sexes  smaller 
than  the  summer  stages.  After  mating,  the 
eggs  are  deposited  on  exposed  surfaces  of 
stems  of  apple  trees.  When  first  laid,  the 
eggs  are  light  green,  later  turning  black,  and 
remain  unhatched  until  the  following  spring. 
Control. — Late  fall  and  early  spring 
sprayings  will  help  to  destroy  the  eggs. 
Use  lime-sulfur  mixture  according  to  direc- 
tions on  can;  or  use  tobacco  extracts.  For 
summer  sprays  on  living  aphids,  dissolve  a 
five-cent  cake  of  Ivory  soap  in  five  gallons 
of  water;  or  of  black  leaf,  No.  40,  two  table- 
spoonfuls,  in  a  gallon  of  water;  or  one  pound 
of  whale  oil  soap  in  four  gallons  of  water. 
When  pruning,  in  the  late  winter  or  early 
spring,  burn  the  cuttings  to  destroy  the  eggs 
thereon. 

The  Apple  Bud  Aphis  (Aphis  avence  Fab.). 

—This  is  another  louse,  like  the  former  in- 
troduced from  Europe,  found  upon  the  apple. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  early  spring  on  apple  trees. 
The  first  generation  or  stem-mothers  are 
deep  green,  wingless,  and  give  birth  to  living 
young  when  mature,  continuing  to  reproduce 
for  three  weeks.  A  few  winged  forms  are 
found  in  the  second  generation,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  the  third  generation  are  winged 
and  migrate  to  grasses,  grain,  or  oats.  Sev- 
eral generations  are  produced  on  the  grasses 
during  the  summer.  Early  in  the  fall  the 
winged  migrants  go  back  to  the  apple  trees  Fl«-  105.— Forest  tent 

i      •         i   •    1 1      ,  -IP  caterpillars       crowded       to- 

and  give  birth  to  true  sexual  forms,  the  eggs  gether,  greatly  reduced, 
being  laid  on  the  apple  twigs. 

Control. — Use  the  same  remedies  as  for  Apple  Aphis. 

The  Apple  Leaf  Hopper  (Empoasca  mali  LeB.). — This  insect 
is  not  a  serious  pest  in  orchards,  but  retards  nursery  stock.  It 
occurs  in  large  numbers  on  plum,  maple,  burr  oak,  black  oak, 


84      INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 

thorn  apple,  basswood,  hazel,  box  elder,  blackberry,  and  many 
other  trees  and  shrubs,  but  is  particularly  injurious  to  young  apples. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  young  form  or  nymph, 
when  first  hatched,  is  almost  colorless,  becoming  pale-orange  or 
greenish-yellow.  It  crawls  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  is 
extremely  active,  and  moves  quickly  when  disturbed.  It  always 
walks,  except  in  the  last  nymph  and  adult  stages.  The  adults  are 
about  one-eighth  inch  long  (Fig.  106).  This  pest  is  apparently 
two-brooded,  the  number  of  broods  probably  varying  with  the 
latitude. 

The  nymph  emerges  from  the  winter  egg  soon  after  the  leaves 
open.  It  has  five  nymphal  stages,  twenty-two  days  being  required 
to  reach  the  adult  stage.  The  adults  lay  summer  eggs  in  petioles 
of  clover,  apple,  and  probably  many  other  plants  which  furnish 
food  during  the  summer.  The  adult  stage  lasts  from  two  to  four 
weeks.  Where  there  are  but  two  broods,  the  second  brood  deposits 
winter  eggs  under  tender  bark  of  apple  tree  or  nursery  stock. 
The  presence  of  this  egg  is  denoted  by  a  blister-like  swelling  on  the 
bark — less  than  one-twenty-fifth  inch  in  diameter. 

Control. — Collect  the  first  brood  with  some  sort  of  hopper- 
dozer  on  a  shield  smeared  with  tanglefoot.  One  pint  of  nicotine 
sulfate  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  will  control  the  young  or 
nymph  stages.  Periodical  dippings  of  affected  tips  of  nursery 
stock,  when  insects  first  appear,  in  the  same  solution,  are  effective. 
Soap  adds  to  the  value  of  the  above  extract.  Where  convenient 
one  should  grow  nursery  stock  as  far  as  possible  from  orchard,  as 
orchards  seem  to  be  infested  yearly.  Scions  cut  from  infested 
orchards  may  help  to  spread  the  pest. 

The  May  Beetle  or  "June  Bug." — The  adult  beetles  feed  at 
night  on  leaves  of  fruit  and  shade  trees,  and  the  immature  form  or 
white  grub  frequently  attacks  the  roots  of  the  apple.  See  White 
Grub,  under  strawberries,  page  135,  for  life  history  and  control 
measures. 

The  Tarnished  Plant-Bug  (Lyjus  pratensis  Linn.). — This  in- 
sect begins  its  work  in  spring,  feeding  upon  young  buds,  from  which 
it  sucks  the  sap.  Its  puncture  seems  poisonous  and  causes  the 
leaves  so  attacked  to  wither  and  dry.  Sometimes  this  bug  attacks 
the  fruit,  causing  deformities  of  the  latter.  It  feeds  upon  almost 
all  garden  crops,  small  fruits,  tender  shoots  of  fruit  and  nursery 
trees,  many  flowering  plants,  and  most  of  the  common  weeds. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  is  brownish;  about 


TARNISHED  PLANT-BUG 


one-fifth  of  an  inch  long.  It  varies  somewhat  in  color  from  a  dark- 
brown  to  a  greenish-  or  yellowish-brown,  the  male  being  generally 
darker  than  the  female.  The  head  is  yellowish,  with  three  narrow, 
reddish  stripes  on  top.  The  beak  is  about  one-third  as  long  as  the 
body,  folded  underneath  the  insect  when  not  in  use.  The  thorax 
is  yellow,  margined  with  several  yellowish  lines  running  length- 
wise. Upon  the  thorax  is  a  yellow  V-shaped  mark.  The  wings  are 
a  dusky  brown;  and  the  legs  are  a  dull  yellow  (Fig.  107).  The 
young  bugs  or  nymphs  resemble  their  parents,  but  they  lack  wings 
and  are  more  or  less  greenish  in  color. 

The  female  deposits  her  eggs  on  leaves  in  the  early  spring,  and 
later  both  young  and  old  bugs  are  found  together.    The  winter  is 


FIG.    106. — Apple  leaf  hopper:  1,  2, 
3,  nymphs;  4,  adult. 


FIG.    107.— The   tarnished 
plant  bug.     (Lugger.) 


passed  in  the  adult  stage  among  rubbish,  etc.  There  may  be  two 
or  three  generations  of  this  insect. 

Injury. — This  destructive  bug  attacks  most  garden  plants, 
small  fruits,  tender  shoots  of  fruit  trees,  nearly  all  of  the  flowering 
plants,  and  many  weeds.  It  also  punctures  the  young  fruit  of 
strawberries.  Development  is  arrested  when  the  bug  sucks  the  sap. 

Control. — Contact  insecticides,  such  as  tobacco  extracts,  soap 
solutions,  etc.,  are  used  for  the  young  nymphs.  The  adults  are  too 
active  for  effective  treatment  and,  being  sucking  insects,  are  not 
affected  by  arsenical  poisons.  Clean  cultivation  and  complete 
cleaning  up  of  all  rubbish  and  crop  remnants  are  suggested. 
When  the  adults  are  plentiful  they  may  be  collected  from  the 


86      INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 

trees  with  a  net  in  the  cool  of  the  early  morning.  Lime-sulfur  and 
Bordeaux  mixture  both  form  fairly  good  repellents. 

The  Lesser  Apple-leaf  Roller  (Alceris  minuta  Rob.). — The 
caterpillars  of  this  little  moth  fold  tender  leaves  along  the  midribs 
or  fold  over  the  margins  of  older  leaves  and  seek  protection  in  the 
enclosure  thus  formed.  Several  young  larvae  may  tie  up  the  tender 
unfolding  leaves  at  growing  tips  and  work  inside,  boring  through 
the  tender  tissue  and  riddling  it  with  small  holes.  Again,  they  may 
fasten  two  leaves  together  by  their  flat  surfaces.  The  insect  fre- 
quently injures  young  nursery  stock. 

Life  History. — There  are  two  forms  of  this  species,  an  orange- 
colored  moth,  seen  during  spring  and  summer,  and  a  slate-colored 
form  observed  late  in  the  fall.  The  species  has  two  broods.  The 
wing  expanse  is  about  a  half -inch.  The  larva  is  about  a  half-inch 
long,  with  yellowish  head.  In  June,  in  many  localities,  and  again 
in  August,  orange-colored  adults  appear.  Pupation  occurs  on  the 
leaves.  The  third  brood,  consisting  of  slate-colored  adults,  appears 
in  October.  The  late  forms  hibernate  among  fallen  leaves. 

Control. — Pick  off  or  pinch  affected  leaves  on  small  trees  or  on 
nursery  stock.  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  when  the  larvae  are 
very  small  or  before  they  are  hatched.  If  sufficient  time  is  given 
them  to  fold  their  leaves,  they  are  then  protected  from  arsenical 
spraying.  When  moths  are  seen  flying  about,  use  this  spray  and 
repeat  the  same  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks. 

The  Bud  Moth  (Spilonota  ocellana  Schiff.).— The  black-headed, 
greenish  caterpillar — the  young  of  this  moth — feeds  on  the  epider- 
mis of  the  leaf,  leaving  a  network  of  veins.  It  spins  a  small  silken 
case  just  above  the  winter  bud  and  hibernates  therein  when  half- 
grown.  In  spring,  when  the  buds  open,  it  eats  into  the  buds  and 
young  leaves,  webbing  up  buds  and  clusters  of  leaves  to  make  nests. 
The  insects  pupate  in  these  clusters,  the  pupal  period  lasting  about 
ten  days.  The  adult  moths  appear  in  June,  the  transparent  eggs 
being  placed  singly  or  in  clusters.  This  insect  is  especially  injurious 
to  nursery  stock. 

Control. — Collect  and  burn  the  nests  in  spring  or  crush  them 
with  the  hand.  Early  spraying  with  arsenicals  as  used  for  codling 
moth  will  help  in  their  control.  (See  page  98.) 

The  Cigar  Case-bearer  (Coleophora  fletcherella  Fernald).— 
The  insect  hibernates  as  a  half-grown  larva  in  a  case  attached  to 
a  twig,  emerging  in  April  or  May  and  attacking  buds,  leaves,  and 
fruit.  The  case  is  built  larger  as  the  larva  increases  in  size.  In 


SPRING  CANKER  WORM  87 

this  stage  the  insect  mines  a  leaf  and,  discarding  the  old  case,  makes 
a  new  one  from  the  upper  and  lower  layers  of  the  leaf.  It  becomes 
full  grown  in  June  or  July,  fastens  the  case  to  a  twig,  and  pupates 
within.  The  pupal  stage  lasts  ten  days,  after  which  the  adults 
appear  as  minute  gray  moths. 

Control. — Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  as  in  the  treatment  of 
codling  moth.  Repeat  for  five  days.  Kerosene  emulsion  used  in 
place  of  arsenical  poisons  is  effective.  In  connection  with  kerosene 
emulsion,  note  caution  given  in  the  chapter  on  insecticides. 

The  Spring  Canker  Worm  (Palecrita  vernata  Peck). — The  pale 
grayish  female  moth  with  dark  brown  stripe  down  middle  of  back 
and  •  dark  head  is  wingless ;  somewhat  fancifully  referred  to  as 
resembling  a  spider.  The  male  is  winged  with  a  wing  expanse  of 
about  an  inch;  wings  semi-transparent;  brownish-gray;  three  indis- 
tinct dark  lines  around  the  forewings. 

When  full  grown,  the  larva  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long, 
cylindrical,  with  but  one  pair  of  pro-legs  on  middle  of  abdomen, 
and  it  walks  by  "  looping."  The  color  of  the  larva  varies  from 
ash-gray  to  green  or  yellow;  the  predominating  color,  however,  is 
dark-greenish  olive  or  blackish.  It  is  marked  with  narrow,  pale 
lines  down  the  back  and  has  a  light  stripe  along  each  side. 

Life  History  and  Injury. — The  moths  emerge  from  their  pupal 
cells  in  the  ground  in  March  and  April.  The  wingless  females 
then  climb  the  trunks  of  trees.  After  the  mating,  the  eggs  are 
deposited  in  irregular  masses  of  about  fifty  each  on  or  under  scales 
of  bark,  in  cracks,  crevices,  and  crotches  of  limbs  and  twigs.  They 
hatch  in  approximately  a  month.  The  young  caterpillars  begin  to 
feed  on  the  expanding  leaves,  the  larvae  when  first  hatched  eating 
holes  in  the  leaves  and  later  eating  the  entire  leaf  except  the 
midrib.  They  may  drop  from  the  tree  and  hang  suspended  upon 
strands  of  silk  when  disturbed. 

The  caterpillar  becomes  full  grown  in  four  or  five  weeks;  enters 
the  soil  to  a  distance  of  two  to  five  inches,  hollowing  out  a  cell  in 
the  ground,  which  it  lines  with  silk.  It  then  changes  to  a  pupa  which 
is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long  and  light  brown.  The  summer 
is  passed  in  this  condition. 

Control. — Thorough  cultivation  during  summer  will  largely 
destroy  the  pupae.  The  caterpillars  are  easily  destroyed  by  a 
spray  of  arsenate  of  lead,  three  pounds  in  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
The  first  spraying  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the  trees  leaf  out, 
and  the  second  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  drop.  The  first  is  the  more 


88 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


important,  and  one  good  spraying  is  usually  sufficient.  The 
remedial  measures  recommended  for  the  codling  moth  will  also 
control  these  caterpillars. 

The  wingless  females  may  be  prevented  from  ascending  trees 
by  a  tanglefoot  band  three  or  four  inches  wide.  These  bands 
should  be  applied  late  in  March  for  the  spring  canker  worm  and 


FIG.   108. — The  fall  canker  worm  attacks  trees  other  than  apple.     A  basswood  defoliated 
by  attacks  of  this  insect.     (Original.) 

in  late  September  for  the  fall  canker  worm.  Before  applying 
tanglefoot  bands,  the  rough  bark  should  be  slightly  scraped  in 
order  that  no  cracks  are  left  untouched  by  this  sticky  mixture  and 
that  the  compound  may  not  be  wasted.  Personal  observation 
leads  us  to  believe  that  on  very  young  trees  it  is  safer  to  wind 
paper  bands,  two  or  three  inches  in  width,  about  the  trunk  and 
apply  tanglefoot  bands  on  that,  in  order  to  avoid  injuring  the 
young  bark.  Do  not  tie  these  bands  tight.  Tanglefoot  bands. 


FALL  CANKER  WORM 


89 


should  be  kept  sticky  during  seasons  of  infestation  by  "combing" 
with  paddle  or  brush  or  adding  new  material. 

The  Fall  Canker  Worm  (Alsophila  pometaria  Harris). — This 
measuring  worm  or  "looper"  also  feeds  on  the  foliage,  sometimes 
stripping  a  tree  completely.  It  not  only  attacks  apple,  plum,  and 
other  fruit  trees,  but  is  at  times  destructive  to  basswood  and  elm 
(Fig.  108). 

Description. — The  adult  male  moth,  grayish  or  whitish  in 
color,  has  fore-wings  crossed  by  two  light  bands,  the  outer  one 
indented  on  the  front  margin  so  as  to  form  a  distinct  spot.  This 
outer  band  is  also  seen  on  the  hind  wings,  but  less  distinct.  The 
female  of  this  species  is  wing- 
less and  of  a  uniform,  ash-gray 
color  without  markings.  The 
segments  are  about  as  broad 
as  long,  without  hairs. 

The  full-grown  larva  is 
from  three-fourths  to  an  inch 
in  length,  slender,  cylindrical, 
with  two  pairs  of  pro-legs 
on  the  abdomen,  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  the  spring 
canker  worm,  the  latter  hav- 
ing only  one  pair.  The  color 
varies  from  ash  gray  to  green 

J  FIG.   109. — The  fall  canker  worm.     Above:  a, 

Or    yellow,    but    the   predomi-  6,  single  eggs,  much  enlarged;  c,  d,  joints  of  cater- 

,.               i'ii                  •   i  pillar,  much  enlarged;  e,  egg  mass; /,  caterpillar; 

Dating   COlor  IS    dark  greenish  ff,  pupa  of  female.     Below:  a,  male  moth;  b,  female 

yellow    or    blackish.       It   is  moth;  d'  one  joint  ° 

marked  with  narrow,  pale  lines  down  the  back  and  a  whitish  stripe 

along  each  side. 

Life  History. — The  moths  may  emerge  from  the  middle  of 
September  to  as  late  as  the  middle  of  November,  or  even  later — 
depending  apparently  upon  climate  and  season — the  eggs  being 
laid  in  clusters  of  about  one  hundred  in  rows.  These  eggs  are 
fastened  on  end  on  the  bark  of  smaller  branches  or  on  the  trunk. 
They  are  brownish  gray,  each  something  like  a  flower  pot  in  shape, 
with  a  spot  in  the  center  and  a  ring  on  the  outer  end  (Fig.  109). 
They  hatch  the  following  spring,  in  April,  May,  or  early  June. 
The  caterpillars  when  full  grown,  in  midsummer,  pupate  in  the 
soil  beneath  the  infested  tree. 

Control. — They  are  easily  controlled  by  the  usual  arsenical 


90  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 

sprays  or  by  the  same  mechanical  barriers  as  advised  for  spring 
canker  worms.  Mechanical  barriers,  whether  they  consist  of 
tanglefoot  bands,  or  cotton,  or  wire  netting,  should  be  put  in  posi- 
tion as  early  as  the  middle  of  September  for  this  species. 

The  Red-humped  Apple  Tree  Caterpillar  (Schizura  concinna 
S.  and  A.). — These  caterpillars  are  often  found  in  great  numbers 
on  apple  trees.  When  not  feeding  they  are  generally  in  groups. 
They  feed  on  the  leaves. 

Description. — The  larva  of  this  moth,  when  full  grown,  is 
striped  with  yellowish  white  and  dark  brown  or  black  lines  and  a 
double  row  of  black  spines  extending  along  the  back,  which  is 
marked  with  five  narrow  black  lines.  The  first  three  segments  are 
spotted  black  and  white.  The  sides  of  the  fifth  to  the  tenth  seg- 

,  ments  are  whitish  with  black  lines  and 
five  black  points,  and  last  segment  is 
spotted  with  black.  There  is  a  promi- 
nent hump  on  the  fourth  segment, 
and  this,  with  the  head,  is  bright 
coral  red,  giving  the  caterpillar  its 
name  (Fig.  110).  The  caterpillar  is 
one  and  one-fourth  inches  long 
when  full  grown,  tapering  towards  the 
^as^  seSments,  which  are  usually  held 
in  an  elevated  position. 

Life  History. — Caterpillars  appear 
FIG.   no.— Red-humped  apple  tree  in  August,  feeding  upon  the  leaves, 

caterpillar.     (Lugger.)  .    °  ° 

and  in  September  they  descend  to  the 

ground  and  construct  a  cocoon  of  silk  mixed  with  particles  of  the 
surrounding  rubbish.  Here  they  pass  the  winter  and  emerge  as 
moths  in  the  spring  or  about  the  last  of  June.  These  moths  have 
a  wing  expanse  of  about  one  and  one-fourth  inches.  The  general 
color  is  dark  brown.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  under  side  of  leaves 
in  late  June  or  July,  and  there  is  one  brood  each  year. 

Control. — These  caterpillars  may  be  hand-picked  or  the  colonies 
destroyed  by  swabbing  them  off  the  limbs  with  rags  or  waste  satu- 
rated with  kerosene.  The  tip  of  the  limb  containing  a  colony  may 
be  cut  off  and  burned.  The  usual  arsenical  sprays  as  applied  for 
codling  moth  would  control  this  as  all  other  forms  of  leaf-eating 
caterpillars.  The  young  forms  are  more  susceptible  to  poison  than 
the  mature  insects. 

The  Yellow-necked  Apple  Tree  Caterpillar  (Datana  ministra 


YELLOW-NECKED  CATERPILLAR  91 

Drury). — These  caterpillars  when  young  eat  the  under  side  or 
soft  parts  of  leaves,  leaving  the  veins.  The  older  caterpillars 
devour  all  of  the  leaf. 

Description  and  Habits. — When  full  grown,  these  caterpillars 
are  two  inches  long;  and  are  often  seen  in  clusters  on  the  twigs  of 
the  trees.  They  have  jet-black  heads.  The  head  segment,  which 
is  often  termed  the  "neck,"  is  a  bright  orange  yellow,  and  from 
this  fact  the  insect  is  named.  A  black  stripe  runs  down  the  middle 
of  the  back,  and  on  either  side  of  the  body  are  three  black  stripes, 
alternating  with  four  yellow  stripes.  The  body  is  thinly  clothed 
with  long,  soft,  white  hairs.  If  a  limb  upon  which  these  cater- 
pillars are  found  is  jarred,  the  insects  throw  the  head  and  tail  in 
the  air  and  may  remain  several  minutes  in  this  position  (Fig.  111). 


FIG.   111. — Yellow-necked  apple  tree  caterpillar,  larva,  eggs,  and  imago.      (After  Riley.) 

The  female  moth  is  reddish  brown,  has  a  wing  expanse  of  about 
two  inches,  and  lays  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  eggs  in  a 
cluster  upon  the  surface  of  a  leaf.  The  eggs  hatch  during  the  latter 
part  of  July  and  first  part  of  August. 

Control. — The  colonies  may  be  picked  by  hand  and  destroyed 
or  swabbed  off  the  limbs  with  rags  or  waste  saturated  with  kero- 
sene, as  recommended  for  the  red-humped  caterpillar.  If  infesta- 
tion is  very  serious,  the  tree  may  be  sprayed  with  arsenicals  while 
the  larvae  are  still  small. 

The  Cecropia  Moth  (Samia  cecropia  Linn.). — This  insect  is 
a  minor  pest,  but  is  conspicuous  on  account  of  its  large  size.  It 
is  easily  controlled;  yet  a  couple  of  caterpillars  on  a  young  tree, 
if  unchecked,  will  strip  it  bare  in  a  short  time.  This  prevents  the 
proper  ripening  of  the  wood  for  winter. 

Appearance  and  Life  History. — The  full  grown  caterpillar  is 
three  or  four  inches  long,  is  bluish  green,  and  is  covered  with 


92 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


tubercles.  These  tubercles  on  the  third  and  fourth  segments  are 
red,  while  the  others  are  yellow;  and  each  tubercle  bears  a  bunch  of 
short,  black  spines.  The  tubercles  on  the  last  segment  are  blue. 
The  adult  moth  is  one  of  our  largest  species,  the  wings  having 
a  spread  of  from  five  to  seven  inches.  The  body  of  the  moth  is 
furry.  The  head  and  thorax  are  rust  red.  The  abdomen  is  red, 
with  bands  of  white  and  black.  The  wings  are  grayish,  inclined  to 
brown,  with  cross-bands-  of  white,  black,  and  red.  On  the  fore- 


j 


FIG.   112. — Cecropia 


wings  there  is  a  purplish  patch.  A  crescent  of  white  bordered  with 
red  and  black  is  on  each  wing.  The  wings  are  edged  with  clay 
brown,  and  are  grayer  on  their  under  side  (Fig.  112).  The  female 
moth  lays  lead-colored  eggs  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves  in  short 
rows. 

The  caterpillars,  when  first  hatched,  are  black,  with  shining 
black  knobs  on  their  bodies,  these  knobs  bearing  black  hairs. 
Their  growth  is  very  rapid  and  there  are  several  moults. 


AMERICAN  SILKWORM 


93 


Control. — Hand-picking  of  these  large  species  is  probably  suf- 
ficient. They  may  also  be  controlled  by  arsenical  sprays.  In  this 
connection,  it  might  be  noted  that  a  fruit  raiser,  employing  modern 
methods  and  spraying  his  trees  in  season  with  the  proper  com- 
pounds for  the  leading  and  most  injurious  pests,  will  control  these 
minor  pests  at  the  same  time,  and  hence  the  latter  need  no  special 
consideration  on  his  part.  The  grayish  cocoons  (Fig.  113)  are 
easily  seen  on  the  bare  trees  in  fall  or  winter,  and  should  be 
destroyed. 

The  American  Silkworm  (Telea  polyphemus  Cram.). — This, 
like  the  preceding  insect,  is  of  minor  impor- 
tance as  a  pest,  but  its  immense  size  makes 
it  well  known  by  many  people.  It  is  popu- 
larly known  as  the  polyphemus  moth.  The 
larva  attacks  not  only  the  apple  and  plum, 
but  also  such  shade  trees  as  maple,  oak,  elm, 
basswood,  and  others. 

Description. — This  large  moth  has  a  wing 
expanse  of  from  five  to  six  inches.  It  is  buff- 
colored,  but  is  sometimes  inclined  to  pale 
gray  or  cream  and  again  almost  brown.  The 
wings  toward  the  base  are  crossed  by  irregu- 
lar, pale,  white  bands  margined  with  red. 
Near  the  outer  margin  is  a  stripe  of  pale 
purplish  white,  bordered  with  one  of  rich 
brown.  About  the  middle  of  each  wing  is 
a  transparent  eye-like  spot,  with  slender  line 
across  the  center.  The  front  edge  of  the 
forewings  is  gray.  The  moth  flies  only  at 

night  and  is  often  mistaken,   in  the  dusk        FIG   113.__Cecropia  co_ 
of  the  evening,  for  a  bat  by  the  uninitiated  coon  frequently  seen  on  bare 

,_.  ^  ..  trees  in  winter. 

(Fig.  114). 

The  caterpillar,  when  full  grown,  is  over  three  inches  long,  with 
a  thick,  yellowish  green  body,  having  seven  oblique  pale  yellow 
lines  on  each  side.  Its  segments  are  well  marked,  and  each  is 
ornamented  with  tubercles,  which  may  be  tinted  with  orange, 
and  each  has  a  silvery  spot  in  the  center,  and  bears  a  few  hairs. 
The  head  is  pale  brown.  The  terminal  segment  of  the  body  is 
bordered  by  an  angular  point  resembling  the  letter  V  (Fig.  115). 

Life  History. — When  this  larva  is  mature,  it  spins  a  silken 
cocoon  inside  an  enclosure  formed  by  drawing  together  a  few 


94 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


leaves.    The  cocoons  may  drop  to  the  ground  with  the  falling  of 
the  leaves  or  may  remrin  on  the  trees  during  the  winter.     The 


FIG.   114. — The  polyphemus  moth  and  cocoon,  reduced.     (Lugger.) 


FIG.   115. — Caterpillar  of  polyphemus  moth.     (After  Riley.) 

cocoons  of  this  species  and  also  of  the  previous  insect  are  conspicu- 
ous objects  upon  the  leafless  trees  in  winter.     The  adults  emerge 


FRUIT-TREE  LEAF  ROLLER 


95 


from  the  cocoons  late  in  May  or  in  June,  and  the  female,  a  few 
days  after  emergence,  lays  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred 
eggs  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  usually  only  one  or  two  on  a 
leaf.  From  ten  to  twelve  days  are  required  for  hatching. 


FIG.    116. — A  leaf-roller. 


.   117.— Larva  of  leaf-roller  on  leaf.     (Herrick 
and  Leiby,  Cornell  Bull.,  367.) 


Control. — Hand  picking  of  the  larvae  is  probably  sufficient. 
Insectivorous  birds  attack  the  larvae.  Parasitic  insects,  both 
Ichneumonids  and  Tachinids,  are  natural  enemies. 

The  Fruit=Tree  Leaf  Roller  (Archips  argyrospila  Walk.). 
—This  insect  is  a  gen- 
eral feeder  on  apple, 
pear,  plum,  cherry, 
and  a  host  of  other 
trees  (Fig.  116).  It 
has  become  one  of  seri- 
ous importance.  Pri- 
marily it  is  a  pest  of 
the  apple,  folding  the 
young  leaves  and  ty- 
ing them  together  with 
silk,  the  larva  feeding 
without  this  nest  (Fig. 
117).  Then  the  bios- 

crvm    «tAm«    «nffpr     onrl     FIG.   118. — Work  of  leaf-roller  larva  on  aoples.     (Herrick 
er>    ailC  and  Leiby,  Cornell  Bull.,  367.) 

later  it  gnaws  the 

young  fruit  (Fig.  118).    Much  of  this  injured  fruit  never  matures; 

that  which  does  is  deformed  and  is  unmarketable  (Fig.  119). 

Life  History. — Eggs  are  deposited  during  the  summer  on  bark 
of  twigs.  The  caterpillars  emerge  the  following  spring.  Pupation 
takes  place  within  a  folded  or  rolled  leaf,  the  pupa  lasting  about 
eleven  days.  The  moth,  measuring  about  one  inch  from  tip  to 


96 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


tip  of  expanded  wings,  is  reddish,  with  two  bright  grayish  spots 
on  the  front  margin  of  each  fore-wing.  The  insect  is  single  brooded. 

Control. — Miscible  oils  (one  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water)  sprayed 
once  on  trees  in  early  spring,  when  the  temperature  is  above 
freezing,  will  destroy  the  eggs.  Two  or  more  later  sprayings  of 
arsenate  of  lead  (six  pounds  to  100  gallons  of  water),  or  of  lime- 
sulfur  solution,  as  directed  for  codling  moth,  and  also  directed 
against  the  latter  insect,  would  be  effective. 

The  Oblique-banded  Leaf  Roller  (Archips  rosaceana  Harr.). 
— This  small  green  or  reddish  caterpillar,  three-fourths  of  an  inch 


FIG.   119.— Appl 


deformed    by    leaf-rollers. 
Bull.,  307.) 


(Herrick    and    Leiby,    Cornell 


long,  rolls  up  the  leaves  of  the  apple  and  lives  and  feeds  inside. 
The  adult  is  a  bnyvvnish  moth  which  emerges  from  the  pupal 
form  within  the  rolled  leaves  (Fig.  120).  It  is  believed  that  the 
winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage — the  eggs  hatching  in  spring,  with 
perhaps  a  second  brood  during  the  summer.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
clusters  on  the  bark  and  are  green  in  color.  About  one  hundred 
and  twenty  eggs  are  laid  by  one  female. 

Control. — Lime-sulfur  at  the  strength  used  for  scale  in  the 
dormant  spraying  will  prevent  eggs  from  hatching.  Trees  may  be 
sprayed  also  with  arsenate  of  lead,  three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons 
of  water,  when  buds  are  swelling  and  again  before  the  flower  buds 


WELL-MARKED  CUT-WORM 


open.     These  sprayings  would  also  catch  the  bud  moth  larva, 
which  is  a  serious  pest. 

The  Apple-leaf  Skeletonizer  (Canarsia  hammondi  Riley). — 
This  is  a  small,  brown  caterpillar,  about  one-half  of  an  inch  long 
when  full  grown.  It  feeds  on  the  tissues  of  the  leaves  beneath  the 
silk  web,  causing  the  leaves  to  look  corroded  and  rusty.  The  larva 
is  marked  by  four  black  dots  just  back  of  the  head,  two  on  the 
first  segment  and  two  on  the  second  (Fig.  121).  The  pupal  stage 
is  passed  on  the  leaf,  and  there  are  probably  two  or  three  broods 
during  the  season.  The  adult  is  a  grayish  moth  with  a  wing  ex- 
panse of  one-half  inch. 

Control. — These  caterpillars  are  easily  killed  with  arsenical 
sprays.  They  are  also  attacked  by  several  parasites. 

The  Well-Marked  Cut-Worm 
(Noctua  clandestine,  Harr.). — De- 
scription: The  caterpillar  of  this 
species  resembles  somewhat  other 
cut-worm  caterpillars  and  its  life 
history  is  more  or  less  like  that 


L_  -_J 

FIG.   120.— Oblique-banded  leaf  roller. 


FIG.  121. — Apple-leaf  skeletonizer:  a, 
larva;  b,  segment  of  same,  enlarged;  c, 
anterior  segments,  enlarged;  d,  adult;  hair 
lines  below  show  actual  size.  (After  Riley.) 


of  other  representatives  of  the  family.  When  full  grown,  it 
is  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  long.  It  is  dull  brown, 
gray,  or  blackish,  often  tinged  with  greenish,  and  is  more  or  less 
marked  longitudinally  with  dots  and  dashes.  These  markings  are 
inconspicuous  so  that  the  caterpillars  harmonize  with  the  color 
of  the  soil.  The  head  and  thorax-plate  are  horny,  and  are  reddish 
brown  in  color. 

The  moth  has  dark  fore-wings,  gracefully  marked  with  darker 
or  lighter  spots  and  narrow  bands,  and  has  lighter  hind-wings. 
The  moths,  unlike  others  of  this  group,  fold  their  wings  over  the 
back  when  at  rest. 

Life  History  and  Habits. — The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  July 
7 


98  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 

or  August  on  grass  land  or  where  a  crop  has  grown  up  to  grass. 
They  are  placed  on  stems  or  leaves  of  grass  or  on  weeds,  or  even 
on  stones  or  twigs.  The  caterpillars  hatch  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber, feed  on  whatever  is  available  until  frost.  The  caterpillars 
climb  trees  at  night  and  attack  the  foliage,  as  well  as  living  on 
the  roots  of  various  crops  in  the  soil.  They  pass  the  winter  in 
the  caterpillar  stage,  and  become  full  grown  hi  the  early  summer 
of  the  year  following;  they  then  pupate  and  the  adults  emerge 
in  July  or  August.  There  is  usually  but  one  generation  a  year, 
Control. — Thorough  cultivation  of  orchards  is  recommended. 
Clean  up  and  burn  all  rubbish.  Place  cotton  bands  or  tanglefoot 
around  young  trees  to  prevent  climbing  by  the  worms.  Drop 
poisonous  bait,  such  as  poisoned  bran  mash  (see  chapter  on  Insec- 
ticides), hi  little  bunches  near  base  of  trees.  These  caterpillars 
succumb  to  arsenical  sprays.  Young  trees  are  the  chief  sufferers, 
but  occasionally  old  trees  are  infested.  Their  attacks  on  young 
trees  appear  to  be  a  strong  argument  against  allowing  sod  in  a 
young  orchard. 

The  Bud  Moth  (Spilonola  ocellana  Schiff.). — The  larva  of 
this  pest  destroys  young  foliage  and  fruit  buds,  hibernating  in 
small,  oval,  silken  cases  on  bark  of  twigs.  When  the  buds  swell, 
the  caterpillars  bore  into  them  and  are  thus  protected  from  in- 
secticides. Later  they  form  nests  by  tying  leaves  together. 

Life  History. — They  become  full  grown  in  June,  transforming 
to  pupse  in  silk-lined  nests.  After  ten  days  the  dark  ash  gray 
moth  appears,  laying  eggs  singly  or  in  small  clusters  on  the  under 
side  of  leaves.  The  eggs  hatch  and  the  young  caterpillars  feed  on 
the  epidermis  of  the  lower  side  of  the  leaf,  protected  by  a  silk  web. 
In  the  fall  they  migrate  to  twigs  and  there  form  cases  in  which 
they  hibernate.  When  full  grown  the  caterpillar  is  half  an  inch 
long,  with  a  light  chestnut  brown  color.  (See  also  page  86.) 

It  is  believed  that  this  pest  was  introduced  from  Europe  at 
least  one  hundred  years  ago. 

Control. — Spray  with  Paris  green  or,  better,  with  arsenate  of 
lead  just  as  the  buds  burst  and  again  before  the  trees  are  in  blos- 
som. Here  again  the  usual  codling  moth  sprayings  are  effective. 
The  Leaf-crumpler  (Mineola  indigenella  Zell). — Caterpillars 
of  this  moth  build  cocoons  of  silk,  mixed  with  the  dried  excrement 
and  borm  gs  of  the  worm .  During  winter  crumpled  leaves  a  re  found 
fastened  to  the  twigs  which,  when  separated,  reveal  the  horn- 
shaped  cocoons.  Early  in  spring,  when  buds  commence  to  ex- 


CODLING  MOTH  99 

pand,  the  caterpillars — not  yet  full  grown — emerge  and  draw  new 
leaves  toward  the  cocoons.  When  full  grown  the  reddish  brown 
caterpillar  is  a  little  more  than  half  an  inch  long.  It  matures  a 
few  weeks  later,  changes  to  a  pupa  in  its  case,  and  emerges  as  a 
moth  two  weeks  later.  There  is  but  one  brood  annually. 

Injury. — The  caterpillars  attack  young  apple  trees  in  nursery 
and  orchards,  which  are  often  seriously  injured  by  the  destruction 
of  the  leaves  as  they  emerge  from  the  buds.  Green  fruit  and  young 
bark  are  sometimes  attacked.  Other  trees  affected  are  quince, 
peach,  plum,  cherry,  and  sometimes  pear. 

Control. — Pick  off  and  burn  conspicuous  cases  in  the  dormant 
season.  In  extreme  infestation,  an  early  application  of  arsenate  of 
lead,  two  pounds  to  fifty  gallons,  would  be  of  value.  Codling  moth 
sprayings  easily  control  this  pest. 

ATTACKING    THE    FRUIT 

The  Codling  Moth  (Carpocapsa  pomcnella  Linn.). — This  well- 
known  pest  is  believed  to  cause  an  annual  loss  in  the  United  States 
of  about  $12,000,000;  it  originated  in  England. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  grayish  brown  moths, 
which  fly  only  at  dusk,  have  wings  expanding  about  three-fourths 
of  an  inch.  When  closely  examined,  numerous  lines  of  tiny  gray 
and  brown  scales  are  observed.  Near  the  rear  angle  of  each  fore- 
wing  is  a  large,  dark  brown  or  coppery  spot  marked  with  streaks 
of  brown  and  gold.  The  hind-wings  are  somewhat  lighter,  growing 
darker  toward  their  margins  (Fig.  122).  The  larva  or  caterpillar 
is  the  well-known,  pinkish,  somewhat  fleshy  " apple  worm,"  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long  when  mature.  It  passes  the  winter  in  a 
cocoon  in  crevices  of  the  bark,  or  in  fruit  cellars  or  fruit  houses, 
wherever  infested  apples  were  found  in  the  late  summer  and  fall 
(Fig.  123).  Before  the  time  of  blossoming,  the  larvse  turn  into 
small  brown  pupae,  the  moths  emerging  in  two  or  three  weeks. 
In  from  three  to  nine  days  the  females  deposit  eggs,  mostly  on  the 
foliage  or  in  the  calyx  end  of  the  small  apple,  each  female  averag- 
ing from  eighty  to  ninety  eggs.  Hatching  occurs  in  from  five  to 
ten  days,  depending  upon  the  temperature,  and  the  larvse  become 
full  grown  in  from  three  to  four  weeks.  Some  of  these  larvse  may 
pupate  and  cause  a  small  or  partial  generation.  Most  of  them, 
however,  hibernate  during  the  winter  and  pupate  in  spring. 

The  young  larva  feeds  at  first  either  on  the  tender  parts  of  the 
leaves  or  enters  an  apple.  Those  of  the  early  brood,  for  the  most 


100 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


part,  enter  through  the  blossom  end,  and  bore  into  the  core  (Fig. 
124).  The  seeds  appear  to  be  very  attractive  to  this  pest.  In 
three  or  four  weeks  the  caterpillar  is  full  grown  and  issues  from  the 
side  of  the  apple,  seeking  a  place  for  spinning  its  cocoon.  If  the 


FIG.    122. — Codling  moth,  much  enlarged. 


apple  is  still  on  the  tree,  the  larva  lets  itself  down  to  the  ground 
by  a  silken  thread. 

Control. — In  the  winter  time  woodpeckers  seek  out  and  devour 
the  larvse  and  cocoons  beneath  the  old  bark  scales.    These  birds 


FIG.   123. — Codling  moth  larva,  much  enlarged.     (After  Slingerland.) 

should  be  attracted  to  orchards  by  hanging  up  suet  in  the  winter. 
All  fallen  fruit  should  be  disposed  of  by  the  use  of  stock  or  gathered 
and  destroyed  in  other  ways. 

The  chief  measure  of  control  consists,  of  course,  in  spraying 
with  arsenate  of  lead  or  with  arsenate  of  lead  combined  with  a 
fungicide,  in  order  to  control  fungous  diseases  at  the  same  time 


PLUM  CURCTJLlO 


101 


(Fig.  125).  Two  or  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  fifty  gallons 
of  water  or  in  fifty  gallons  of  fungicide  is  recommended. 

Spray  with  commercial  lime-sulfur,  one  part  to  forty  parts  of 
water.  Use  two  or  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  for  every 
fifty  gallons  of  the  mixture  as  soon  as  the  first  blossom  buds  begin 
to  show  pink.  Repeat  as  soon  as  all  petals  have  fallen  (Fig.  126) 
and  again  three  weeks  later. 

A  later  spraying  should  be  given,  toward  the  end  of  July.  This 
treatment  should  control  not  only  the  codling  moth  but  also  the 
plum  curculio  attacking  the  apple,  and  all  leaf-eating  insects,  as 
well  as  the  apple-scab. 

For  oyster-shell  scale  a  dormant  spray  (one  part  lime-sulfur 
to  eight  of  water)  might  well  be  given  earlier,  when  leaf  buds  are 
swollen,  just  before  they  open. 


FIG.   124. — Proper  time  for  first  spraying  for  codling  moth.     The  right-hand  calyx  closed; 
no  chance  to  get  poison  in  this. 

The  Palmer  Worm  (Ypsolophus  ligulellus  Hbn.). — This  cater- 
pillar may  be  primarily  a  leaf-eater,  but,  since  it  attacks  fruit  as 
well,  it  is  included  among  the  fruit  insects.  It  injures  apple  trees 
in  June  and  July,  skeletonizing  the  leaves  and  fastening  a  few  to- 
gether by  a  web  within  which  it  feeds.  It  also  eats  irregular  holes 
into  the  growing  fruit  and  spins  a  web  across  the  opening.  It  is 
extremely  active,  rapidly  wriggling  backward  or  forward  and 
frequently  hanging  suspended  by  a  web.  The  pupa  is  suspended 
by  a  web  from  the  posterior  end  or  rests  between  a  few  folded 
leaves.  It  changes  to  a  moth  in  about  ten  days. 

Control. — Spray  trees  with  arsenate  of  lead  as  for  codling  moth. 

The  Plum  Curculio  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar  Hbst.). — This 
familiar  beetle,  more  destructive  to  apples  in  some  localities  than 
the  codling  moth,  is  characterized,  like  other  curculios,  by  the 


102 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


presence  of  a  prolonged  beak  or  snout.  It  is  about  one-fifth  of  an 
inch  long ;  color,  mixed  black,  brown  and  white,  with  darker  shades 
predominating.  Several  humps  occur  on  its  back,  giving  the  dorsal 
surface  a  roughened  appearance  and  affording  it  some  protection 
on  account  of  its  resemblance  to  the  bark  on  which  it  rests.  The 
curved  snout  is  about  one-third  the  length  of  the  body  (Fig.  127). 


FIG.  125. — First  spraying  for  codling  moth  forcing  the  liquid  into  calyx  cup.  Note 
that  there  are  two  cavities  in  the  calyx  cup,  an  upper  and  a  lower  (1  and  2  in  b),  separated 
by  stamen  bars  (61).  A  few  days  after  the  petals  fall,  while  the  apples  are  still  erect,  these 
bars  wither  and  separate  (c  1),  allowing  the  poisoned  liquid  to  enter  the  lower  cavity  of  the 
calyx,  (a  after  Slingerland,  remaining  figure  after  Ball.) 

Life  History. — This  beetle  is  sometimes  called  the  "Little 
Turk,"  because  the  female,  when  the  apples  are  no  larger  than  peas, 
punctures  them  with  her  beak,  introducing  an  egg  into  the  puncture, 
and  then  cutting  a  crescent  in  the  fruit  at  one  side  of  the  egg,  pre- 
venting, it  is  believed,  the  growth  of  the  tissue  and  the  consequent 
crushing  of  the  egg  by  so  doing.  This  act  on  the  part  of  the  female 
beetle  causes  a  distorted  growth  and  the  fruit  would  rank  as  imperfect. 

The  beetles  leave  their  hibernating  quarters  in  the  spring,  before 


PLUM  CURCULIO 


103 


blooming  time,  seeking  quarters  in  the  trees.  Egg-laying  occurs 
during  spring  and  early  summer,  when  the  old  beetles  die.  The 
eggs,  numbering  anywhere  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred 
from  a  single  female,  hatch  in  from  three  to  seven  days,  and  the 
grub  normally  feeds  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days  in  the  fruit, 
at  which  time  it  leaves  the  apple  or  plum  and  enters  the  ground. 
It  hollows  out  the  soil  and  transforms  into  a  pupa,  in  which  stage 
it  remains  for  about  a  month,  then  emerging  as  a  beetle,  going  to 
trees  and  feeding  on  fruit,  but  does  not  lay  eggs  in  the  fall.  Beetles 


FIG.    126.  —  Blossoms  from  which  the  petals  have  fallen;  in  good  condition 
the  spray.     It  is  too  late  to  apply  calyx  spray  to  two  apples  on  left 
Bull..  210.) 


to   receive 
(Gillette  and  List,  Col. 


also  feed  to  some  extent  on  the  young  buds  in  the  spring,  before 
the  blossoms  appear.  Its  work  and  life  history  in  connection  with 
the  plum  is  practically  identical  with  that  in  the  case  of  the  apple. 
Apples  or  other  fruits  infested  with  the  larvae,  for  the  most  part, 
drop  to  the  ground.  This  allows  the  completion  of  the  life  history. 
It  is  claimed,  however,  that  in  much  of  the  fruit  which  does  not 
drop,  the  development  of  this  pest  is  prevented.  Many  of  the  larvae 
die  before  the  larval  stage  is  half  completed,  leaving  matured  fruit 
with  the  sunken  scars  on  the  surface  as  above  indicated,  and  streaks 
of  hardened  tissue  in  the  flesh. 


104 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


Control. — Spray  thoroughly  with  arsenical  insecticides  before 
leaves  expand.  Spray  ing  for  codling  moth,  after  the  petals  fall, 
will  aid  in  controlling  the  curculio.  All  fallen  fruit  should  be  de- 
stroyed. As  an  additional  measure,  the  trees  might  be  jarred  every 
few  days  in  the  early  morning,  catching  the  beetles  on  a  sheet 


FIG.    127. — Plum  curculio,  larva,  pupa,  adult.     Hair  lines  show  natural  size. 

below  and  destroying  them.    The  jarring  is  done  before  the  adults 
lay  their  eggs  on  the  young  fruit. 

The  Apple  Curculio  (Anthonomus  quadrigibbus  Say.). — This 
is  a  small,  brown  weevil  or  curculio  which  comes  out  from  hiberna- 
tion quarters  early  in  the  spring,  punctures  the  young  fruit  with 


6  a 

FIG.   128. — The  apple  curculio,  larva,  pupa  and  two  views  of  adult.     (After  Riley.) 

its  beak,  and  deposits  an  egg  in  the  puncture.  The  eggs  are  yel- 
lowish, oval  in  shape,  and  hatch  in  from  four  to  five  days.  The 
period  of  greatest  egg-laying  is  late  spring  and  early  summer. 
The  native  food  is  hawthorn  and  wild  crab,  but  the  insect  is  also 
fond  of  cultivated  fruit,  and  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  eggs  are 
laid  by  a  single  female. 


APPLE  MAGGOT 


105 


j 


FIG    129. — Apple  n.aggot  fly. 


The  larva  or  grub  is  \\hite,  legless,  with  a  yellowish  brown 
head  and  jaws,  and  is  found  burrowing  and  feeding  near  the  center 
of  the  apple  (Fig.  128).  It  becomes  full  grown  in  about  twenty 
days,  changing  to  a  pupa  in  the  center  of  the  fruit  and  emerging 

as  a  beetle  about  ten  days  5 — ---  -^ ••     \     •»*; — - 

later.     This  emergence  oc-  t  / 

curs  during  June,  July,  and  \ 
August,  and,  after  emerg- 
ing, the  insect  feeds  but  \i 
little.  The  fall  and  whiter  | 
are  spent  under  leaves  and  f 
rubbish  beneath  trees. 

Control. — Use  the  same 
methods  as  for  the  plum 
curculio. 

The  Apple  Maggot  (Rha-  L 
gcletis  pcmonella  Walsh). — 
The  adult  of  this  insect  is  a  two-winged  fly  (Fig.  129) .  The  general 
color  is  black,  sides  of  head  white,  eyes  green,  antennae  orange.  It 
is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  and  appears  early  in  the  summer. 

The  eggs  are  laid  only  in 
matured  fruit,  hatching  in  a 
few  days.  The  larvae  make 
tunnels  in  the  flesh  of  the 
fruit,  working  in  all  direc- 
tions (Fig.  130).  It  takes 
from  five  to  six  weeks  for 
the  maggot  to  complete  its 
growth .  As  a  result  of  inf es- 
tation,  the  fruit  falls  to  the 
ground.  The  larva  enters 
the  soil,  pupating  about  one 
inch  below  the  surface.  Fre- 
quently the  maggots  remain 
in  the  stored  fruit.  Adults 
appear  the  following  spring, 
FIG.  i3o.— Burrows  of  apple  maggot  in  soft  fruit,  and  there  is  but  one  brood 

(O'Kane,  N.  H.  Bull,  171.)  &  year 

Control. — Gather  and  destroy  windfalls  as  soon  as  they  drop 
to  the  ground.  Cultivate  orchards  thoroughly. 

Brown  Fruit  Chafer. — This  brownish  beetle  is  also  called  the 


106 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 


Indian  Euphoria  (Euphoria  inda  Linn.) .  It  is  about  one-half  of 
an  inch  long  and  is  heavy-bodied.  The  wing  covers  are  yellowish 
brown,  marked  with  irregular  darker  patterns.  The  head  and 
thorax  are  blackish,  or  a  dark  copper  brown,  thickly  covered  with 

short  yellowish  hairs.  The 
under  side  of  the  body  is 
black  and  hairy  (Fig.  131). 
The  beetle  moves  slowly  and 
is  not  easily  disturbed. 

Eggs  are  deposited  in 
manure  heaps  or  decaying 
vegetable  matter  or  in  sod. 
In  midsummer  the  grub 
changes  to  a  pupa  beneath 
the  surface,  the  beetles 
emerging  in  the  early  au- 
tumn. There  is  one  brood  a  year.  The  adults  eat  ripening  apples 
and  are  sometimes  also  found  on  green  corn. 

Control. — Where  troublesome,  hand-picking  may  be  resorted 
to,  or  the  beetles  may  be  attracted  to  a  pile  of  decaying  fruit  and 
destroyed.  This  is  not  regarded  as  a  serious  pest,  but  is  fairly 
abundant  in  localities. 

Supplementary  List  of  Apple  Insects. — The  following  insects 
are  more  or  less  injurious  to  the  apple.  See  page  references. 


131. — The  Indian  Euphoria.     (Lugger.) 


Ash-gray  pinion 
Blind-eyed  sphinx 
Broad-necked  Prionus 
Buck  moth  or  Maia  moth 
Cherry-tree  scale,  p.  127 
Cottony  maple  scale,  p.  287 
Cucumber  flea-beetle,  p.  239 
Emperor  moth,   p.  128 
Eye-spotted  bud-moth 
Eyed  elater 
False  chinch  bug 
Fasciated  Lithacodes 
Goat-moth 
Gray  dagger-moth 
Hag-moth  caterpillar 
Imbricated  snout  beetle 


Lime  tree  winter-moth,  p.  284 

Mottled  plum-tree  dagger-moth,  p.  119 

Oak  primer,  p.  281 

Pear  blight  beetle,  p.  116 

Resplendent  shield  bearer 

Rose  leaf -hopper 

Slug  caterpillar 

Smeared  dagger-moth 

Stalk  borer,  p.  248 

Two-horned  tree-hopper 

Thysbe  clear-wing 

Tiger  moth 

Trumpet  leaf- miner 

Unicorn  prominent 

Wild-cherry  leaf  miner 

Zebra  caterpillar  of  cabbage,  p.  236 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Enumerate  the  principal  insects  found  on  the  apple  tree  in  the  following 

situations:   trunk  and  branches;  leaves;  fruit. 

2.  Give  life  history  of  flat-headed  apple  tree  borer  and  remedial  measures. 

Give  the  same  for  the  round-headed  apple  tree  borer. 


QUESTIONS 


107 


3.  Give  life  history  and  remedial  measures  for  San  Jose"  scale.     What  are 

methods  of  controlling  the  oyster-shell  scale? 

4.  Describe  life  history  and  measures  of  control  of  the  woolly  louse  or  woolly 

aphis  of  the  apple. 

5.  Give  life  history  and  remedial  measures  for  the  tent  and  tentless  cater- 

pillars.   What  are  the  differences  between  these  two  species? 

6.  Give  life  history  and  measures  of  control  for  the  apple-leaf  aphis. 

7.  What  remedial  .measures  are  suggested  for  the  apple-leaf  hopper? 

8.  Give  life  history  of  the  fall  web  worm. 

9.  Compare  the  spring  and  fall  canker  worms.    Give  difference  in  life  history 

and  remedial  measures  for  each. 

10.  Compare  the  red-headed    and    yellow-necked    apple    tree    caterpillars. 

11.  Describe  and  give  life  histories  of  the  Cecropia  moth  and  the  American 

silkworm. 

12.  Name  a  cut-worm  which  is  sometimes  an  orchard  pest,  and  give  reasors. 

13.  Give  descript'  n  and  life  history  of  the  tarnished  plant  bug. 

14.  Describe  in  detail  the  life  history  and  habits  of  the  codling  moth,  and 

best  treatment  for  same. 

15.  Do   the  same  regarding  the  plum  curculio  when  it  affects  the  apple. 

16.  In  what  way  is  the  apple  maggot  injurious? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  PEAR  AND  QUINCE 

A  NUMBER  of  insects  attacking  the  pear  and  quince  are  injurious 
also  in  the  apple  orchard.  The  San  Jose  scale,  the  twig  girdler, 
and  the  codling  moth  have  already  been  described  under  apple 
insects. 

ATTACKING  TRUNKS  AND  BRANCHES 

The  Sinuate  Pear  Borer  (Agrilus  sinuatus  Oliv.). — This  is  a 
bronze-colored  beetle,  nearly  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  whose  larva 
bores  in  trunks  and  branches  of  the  pear,  making  tortuous  passages 
in  the  sap  wood.  The  presence  of  these  borers  is  frequently  indi- 
cated by  a  discoloration  of  the  bark  above.  Since  these  burrows, 
if  numerous,  may  result  in  the  girdling  of  a  tree,  a  large  tree  may 
gradually  die  as  the  result  of  an  attack,  and  a  small  tree  may  be 
killed  immediately. 

The  grub  becomes  full  grown  the  second  year,  pupates  in  the 
tree,  and  emerges  the  following  spring,  the  female  at  that  time 
depositing  her  eggs  in  cracks  of  the  bark.  These  beetles  may  fre- 
quently be  seen  basking  in  the  hot  sun  on  the  trunks  of  the  tree 
they  attack. 

Control  Measures. — Dying  or  dead  trees  or  branches  should 
be  burned.  Repellent  washes  may  be  used  as  in  the  case  of  apple- 
tree  borers.  The  grub  may  be  removed  from  the  burrow  with  a 
knife  or  killed  therein  by  the  use  of  a  wire. 

ATTACKING  LEAVES  AND  FRUIT 

Pear-tree  Psylla  (Psylla  pyricola  Forst.). — This  insect  was  in- 
troduced from  Europe  about  1830.  It  is  a  brownish  hemipterous 
insect,  barely  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long.  Its  abdomen  has  black 
bands.  It  has  two  pairs  of  wings,  which,  when  the  insect  is  resting, 
are  folded  over  the  back  and  against  its  sides  in  such  a  way  that 
the  insect  is  made  to  resemble  a  very  small  harvest  fly  or  cicada. 

Life  History. — The  adults  hibernate  under  bark  and  rubbish, 

emerge  in  the  spring,  and  lay  their  tiny  eggs  on  bark  or  about  buds. 

The  scarcely  visible  yellow  nymphs   attack  the  petioles,   fruit 

stems,  and  also  the  leaves  (Fig.  132).     It  has  several  broods  a 

108 


PEAR-TREE  PSYLLA 


109 


FIG.   132. — Pear  psylla:  1  and  2,  nymphs;  3,  eggs;  4,  winter  adult.     All  much  enlarged. 
(Hodgkiss,  Geneva  Bull.,  387.) 


110  INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  PEAR  AND  QUINCE 

year,  and  may  at  times  cause  severe  injury  in  an  orchard  by 
weakening  the  trees  and  stunting  the  fruit.  A  sweet  " honey  dew" 
is  secreted  by  them,  which  drops  upon  the  leaves  below,  much  in 
the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  the  hop  aphis,  and  woolly  louse 
of  the  alder,  affording  a  fine  culture  for  a  black  fungus,  which  gives 
a  blighted  appearance  to  the  foliage. 

Control  Measures. — This  insect  may  be  kept  in  check  by  up- 
to-date  orchard  practice.  Weeds  and  rubbish  should  be  kept  off 
the  ground  and  the  rough  bark  scraped  from  the  trunks  and  larger 
branches.  Spraying  the  trees  on  warm  days  in  early  spring  with  a 
tobacco  extract  will  kill  many.  Use  one  pint  of  nicotine  sulfate 
in  fifty  to  seventy-five  gallons  of  water,  to  which  four  pounds 
of  soap  are  added.  The  dormant  spray  as  used  for  scale  will  kill 
some,  as  well  as  the  eggs  of  the  first  brood  if  present.  Later,  when 
nymphs  are  on  petioles,  the  above  spray  of  tobacco  extract  and 
soap  may  be  employed,  using  it  a  little  weaker  (one  pint  of  nico- 
tine sulfate  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water). 


FIG.    133. — Blister  mite.     Greatly  enlarged.   (After  Parrott,  Hodgkiss  and  Schoene,  Geneva 

Bull.,  283.) 

Pear-leaf  Blister-mite. — Pear  leaves  with  rusty  blotches  upon 
them  are  likely  to  be  found  infested  with  this  tiny  mite  (Fig.  133) 
(not  an  insect),  which  lives  within  the  leaf  tissue.  It  is  some- 
times known  as  the  plum  gall-mite  (Eriophyes  pyri  Pagen).  See 
page  118.)  The  eggs  of  the  mite  are  deposited  within  a  raised 
blister  or  gall,  which  precedes  the  rust-like  appearance  above 
alluded  to,  the  young  migrating  from  one  leaf  to  another.  Young 
fruit  may  also  be  attacked. 

Control  Measures. — Spray  in  winter  with  lime-sulfur  as  prac- 
ticed against  scale  insects. 

Pear  Blight  Beetle  (Xyleborus  dispar  Fab.).— The  adult  of 
this  insect  is  a  very  small  brownish  beetle,  one-eighth  to  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  long,  the  round  head  nearly  concealed  by  the 
thorax  (Fig.  134).  The  female  bores  in  small  branches  and  twigs, 
causing  the  tips  to  die  and  to  present  a  blighted  appearance,  hence 
the  name  of  the  insect  (Fig.  135) .  The  group  of  beetles  to  which 


PEAR  THRIPS 


111 


this  one  belongs  is  of  wide  distribution  and  is  interesting  because 
both  young  and  old  beetles  feed  on  a  fungous  growth  in  their 
burrows,  which  is  referred  to  as  "  Ambrosia." 

Remedies. — If  troublesome,  an  application  of  carbolic  acid 
soap  is  said  to  give  good  results  if  applied  in  the  spring.  Use  three 
gallons  water,  one  gallon  soft  soap,  one-half  gallon  crude  carbolic 
acid. 

Pear  Thrips  (Euthrips  pyri  Daniel) . — These  are  minute  brown- 
ish insects,  which  attack  the  buds  of  fruit  trees,  including  the  plum, 


FIG.  134. — Pear  blight  beetle  (E.  pyri); 
adults  and  enlarged  antennae  of  female  beetle. 
(Hubbard,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


FIG.  135.— Gallery  of  pear  blight 
beetle  in  poplar  twig.  Cross  section 
above,  longitudinal  section  below. 
(Marx,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bull.,  763.) 


peach,  and  cherry.  The  adults  are  winged,  but  the  young  are 
wingless.  They  are  white  and  have  red  eyes.  Transformation 
takes  place  in  the  ground  beneath  the  tree.  Eggs  are  laid  in  fruit 
stems  and  in  leaves  and  hatch  in  four  or  five  days.  The  punctures 
made  for  the  eggs  cause  the  young  fruit  of  prune  and  cherry  to 
yellow  and  drop  to  the  ground. 

Remedial  Measures. — From  the  above  statement  regarding 
its  life  history,  it  is  evident  that  fall  plowing  and  harrowing  will 


112  INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  PEAR  AND  QUINCE 

kill  many  of  the  nymphs  in  the  soil.  This  treatment  is  said  to  be 
very  successful  in  prune  orchards  of  California.  Two  sprayings 
with  nicotine  sulfate,  as  recommended  for  the  pear  psylla,  are 
advised.  The  first  is  made  when  the  buds  are  on  the  point  of 
opening  and  the  second  immediately  after  the  petals  fall.  A  white- 
wash spray  is  also  used  in  California. 

Quince  Curculio  (Conotrachelus  cratcegi  Walsh). — Quince  fruit 
is  frequently  made  ill-shapen  by  attacks  of  this  weevil.  It  works 
upon  the  quince  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  plum  curculio  works 
upon  the  plum  and  apple,  but  it  does  not  make  the  crescent-like 
cut  beside  the  egg  puncture.  Further,  unlike  its  congener  men- 
tioned, it  will  develop  even  when  the  affected  fruit  does  not  drop 
to  the  ground.  The  white,  footless  grub  burrows  into  the  soil 
and  remains  in  the  larval  stage  until  the  following  spring,  trans- 
forming then  to  a  pupa;  and  in  ten  or  twenty  days  it  changes  to 
an  adult.  The  latter  is  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  is 
brownish  gray. 

Control  Measures. — Destruction  of  windfalls  and  picking  and 
destroying  infected  and  misshapen  fruit  are  recommended.  Jar- 
ring beetles  on  to  sheets  spread  below  the  trees  is  also  practiced. 
The  beetles  are  gathered  up  and  destroyed. 

The  False  Tarnished  Plant  Bug  (Lygus  invitus  Say). — This 
plant  bug  looks  much  like  the  true  tarnished  plant  bug,  and  in- 
jures the  fruit  by  puncturing  it.  A  spray  of  nicotine  sulfate 
as  recommended  elsewhere  in  this  chapter,  immediately  after  all 
petals  have  fallen,  is  efficacious. 

The  Pear  and  Cherry  Slug. — This  slug  attacks  both  the  pear 
and  the  cherry.  The  discussion  is  given  under  cherry  insects, 
page  129. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  insects  affect  the  pear  which  are  also  found  on  the  apple? 

2.  Describe  and  give  remedial  treatment  for  the  pear-tree  psylla. 

3.  The  same  for  the  sinuate  pear  borer. 

4.  The  same  for  the  quince  curculio. 


CHAPTER  IX 
PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 

ATTACKING    TRUNK   AND   ROOTS    OF    PLUM 

A  NUMBER  of  the  insects  attacking  the  plum,  cherry,  and  peach 
trees  have  already  been  described  in  the  chapter  on  apple  insects. 
Reference  should  be  made  to  that  chapter  for  discussions  of  the 
New  York  weevil,  the  American  silkworm,  the  plum  curculio,  San 
Jose  scale,  and  others. 

Peach-tree  Borer  (Sanninoidea  exitiosa  Say). — This  destruc- 
tive borer  may  completely  girdle  a  tree.  If  the  attack  is  severe — its 
presence  indicated  by  the  foliage  turning  yellow — the  tree  may 
eventually  die. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  borer  is  the  larva  of  a 
clear-winged  moth.  When  full  grown,  it  is  about  an  inch  long, 
and  is  light  yellowish  with  brown  head.  The  body  is  sparsely 
clothed  with  brownish  hairs  which  arise  from  tubercles.  The 
excrement  thrown  out  of  the  burrow  and  observed  on  the  bark 
indicates  the  presence  of  the  pest.  The  caterpillar  grows  rapidly, 
hibernating  during  the  cold  weather,  and  resumes  operations  again 
in  the  spring.  Its  activities  cause  gum  to  exude  from  the  tree. 
About  two  years  are  required  for  the  life-cycle;  the  larvae  hatching 
in  late  fall  do  not  become  moths  until  the  second  season. 

The  moth  itself,  flying  during  the  daytime,  may  be  mistaken 
for  a  wasp.  The  female  is  deep,  steel  blue,  with  a  broad,  orange 
band  across  the  abdomen.  The  fore-wings  are  opaque,  covered 
with  bluish  scales,  and  expanding  about  one  and  one-fourth 
inches.  The  hind-wings  are  transparent,  except  the  dark  margin. 
The  male  is  smaller  than  the  female.  Its  wings  are  clear,  except 
the  margins  and  a  line  across  the  fore-wings.  The  abdomen  is 
marked  with  three  or  four  yellow  stripes  (Fig.  136).  West  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  this  form  is  replaced  by  S.  opalescens. 

Control. — Dirt  may  be  heaped  in  a  mound  high  on  the  trunk, 
forcing  the  moths  to  lay  eggs  at  a  distance  from  the  ground,  where 
the  borers  are  more  easily  found  when  they  begin  their  work. 
Many  are  kept  out  of  the  trees  in  this  way.  This  mound  can  be 
leveled  in  the  early  fall,  and  the  larvae  maybe  destroyed,  by  careful 
use  of  the  wire  and  knife,  at  that  time.  The  laying  of  eggs  on  the 
8  113 


114          PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 

trunk  may  be  largely  prevented  by  wrapping  the  trunk  with 
building  paper.  This  paper  should  extend  an  inch  or  two  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  These  wrappings  should  be  applied 
before  the  moths  emerge  and  should  be  removed  after  egg-laying 
is  over.  One  can  also  resort  to  digging  the  borers  out  in  the  fall 
and  again  in  the  spring.  This  is  a  good  plan  for  the  South. 


A  B 

FIG.   136. — Peach-tree  borer  (S.  exitiosa):  A,  male;  B,  female. 

The  Plum-tree  Borer  (Sesia  pictipes  G.  and  R.). — This  borer 
is  quite  a  common  pest,  injuring  the  inner  bark  and  sap  wood  of 
the  trunk  and  limbs  of  plum  and  similar  trees.  It  works  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  the  preceding  species.  It  is  found  in  both  the 
cultivated  and  wild  plum  and  also  in  wild  cherries.  It  turns  into 

a  clear-winged  moth,  the  two  sexes 
resembling  closely  the  male  of  the 
peach-tree  borer — in  fact,  is  hardly 
to  be  distinguished  from  that  species. 
Control. — Cut  out  and  burn  in- 
fested parts  of  the  tree. 

The  Fruit-tree  Bark  Beetle  (Scoly- 
tus  rugulosus  Ratz). — If  it  were  not 
Ct  &       for  various  enemies  this  insect  would 

FIG.  is?.— Fruit-tree  bark  beetle;  dorsal  be  verv  injurious.    The  adult  appears 

view  and  in  profile.  (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.)  ,  .  T,  •       j 

in  early  spring.  Its  presence  is  de- 
tected from  the  fact  that  the  outer  bark  is  penetrated  by  numerous 
small  " worm-holes"  or  " shot-holes."  From  these  holes  the  gum 
exudes,  especially  in  the  case  of  stone  fruits.  Weak  or  diseased  trees 
are  most  subject  to  attack,  but  young,  healthy  trees  may  also  suffer. 
Life  History. — From  the  worm-holes  the  beetles  emerge  in 
April  and  May  (Fig.  137).  The  female  burrows  through  the  bark 
to  the  sap  wood,  where  she  eats  out  a  vertical  brood-chamber. 


FRUIT-TREE  BARK  BEETLE 


115 


Along  the  sides  of  this  chamber  she  gnaws  out  pockets,  and  in 
these  places  her  eggs.  The  larvae,  upon  hatching,  excavate  little 
side  galleries,  which  are  widened  as  the  larvae  grow.  Three  weeks 
are  required  for  them  to  reach  full  growth.  The  winter  is  spent  in 
the  adult  form  within  the  burrow. 

The  beetle  is  black  in  color;  about  one-tenth  inch  long  and  about 
one-third  as  wide.  The  very  tips  of  the  wing-covers  and  parts  of 
the  legs  are  reddish. 


FIG.   138. — Peach-tree  bark  beetle:  a,  b,  adult  beetles;  c,  egg;  d,  larva;  e,  pupa.     All  greatly 
enlarged.     (After  Brooks,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

Control. — All  infested  parts  should  be  cut  out  and  destroyed. 
All  prunings  and  trimmings  from  the  trees  should  be  burned.  A 
whitewash  applied  to  the  trunks  and  larger  branches  in  the  spring 
and  midsummer  and  again  in  late  fall  acts  ?,s  a  repellent.  Or, 
better,  apply  a  carbolic  acid  wash  to  the  trunk  and  larger  branches. 
Use  one  pint  crude  carbolic  acid,  one  gallon  of  soft  soap,  then  dilute 


116          PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 

with  five  gallons  of  water.  Orchards  should  be  kept  free  from 
dead  wood.  A  closely  allied  form,  the  peach-tree  bark  beetle, 
and  its  work  are  shown  in  figures  138  and  139. 

The  Pear-blight  Beetle  (Xyleborus  pyri  Peck).— This  beetle 
may  infest  plum,  pear,  apple,  and  apricot.  It  is  commonly  regarded 
as  infesting  only  weak  and  unhealthy  trees,  but,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  two  bark  beetles,  sound  trees  are  known  to  be  infested  also. 
It  may  attack  not  only  twigs  but  also  the  trunk.  The  twigs,  as  a 


FIG.   139. — Exit  holes  in  peach  limbs  made  by  adults   of   peach-tree  bark  beetles,  shown  in 
figure  138.      (Brooks,    U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

result  of  attack,  die,  but  this  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
death  of  twigs  due  to  the  disease  known  as  pear-blight  or  fire-blight. 

Life  History. — The  beetle  deposits  her  eggs  at  the  base  of  the 
buds.  The  young  larva,  upon  hatching,  works  into  the  pith, 
causing  the  tree  to  wither.  In  the  bottom  of  this  burrow  the  larva 
changes  to  a  pupa  and  later  to  the  beetle.  In  June  and  July  the 
adult  emerges  and  lays  its  eggs  before  the  end  of  August. 

The  adult  is  a  small,  cylindrical  beetle,  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
long;  deep  brown  or  black. 


PLUM  SCALE 


117 


FIG.  140.— Divar- 
icated     buprestis. 
(U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


Control. — Blighted  trees  or  limbs  should  be  cut  off  below  the 
injured  part  and  burned  before  the  beetle  emerges. 

The  Divaricated  Buprestis  (Dicer ca  divaricata  Say). — The 
grub  of  this  beetle,  when  full  grown,  resembles,  in  a  general  way, 
the  flat-headed  borer  of  the  apple  tree.  It  lives 
in  the  sap  wood  and  destroys  it  by  burrowing  and 
feeding  upon  it.  Pupation  takes  place  just  below 
the  bark.  The  adults  appear  in  June,  July,  and 
August,  and  at  that  time  they  may  sometimes  be 
seen  in  the  bright  sunshine  on  the  trunks  of  the 
trees.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  crevices  in 
bark  of  old  plum  and  cherry  trees;  it  also  attacks 
the  peach.  The  adult  is  a  copper-colored  beetle 
nearly  an  inch  long,  with  brassy  reflections.  Its 
back  is  thickly  pitted  and  also  exhibits  several 
depressed  lines  and  small  elevated  spots.  The  posterior  ends  of 
the  wing-covers  are  separated  (Fig.  140). 

Control. — Control  measures  similar  to  those  used  for  the  flat- 
headed  borer  of  the  apple  tree  apply  equally  to  this  species.  It  is 
seldom  very  troublesome. 

The   American   Plum-tree   Borer    (Euzophora    semifuneralis 

Walker). — This  moth  appears  in 
early  spring  and  deposits  eggs 
on  the  larger  limbs  of  the 
plum  trees.  Tl^e young  caterpillars 
eat  their  way  into  the  tree,  feed- 
ing upon  the  inner  bark,  and  re- 
maining under  the  bark  until  the 
following  spring,  when  they 
emerge  as  adults. 

Control. — When  possible,  de- 
stroy this  borer  with  a  sharp  wire. 
A  strong  solution  of  soap  and 
crude  carbolic  acid  may  be  ap- 
plied as  a  repellent.  See  also 
remedy  fo*r  round-headed  apple- 
tree  borer. 

The  Plum  Scale  (Eulecanium  sp.). — This  is  a  large  scale  attack- 
ing the  leaves  and  bark  of  the  plum  tree.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
in  great  numbers  under  the  old  scale  in  early  summer.  The  young, 
when  hatched,  crawl  about  the  tree,  reaching  the  leaves  and  twigs, 


FIG.  141. — Lecanium  scale  on  plum. 


118          PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 

where  they  become  attached.  In  the  fall  they  migrate  to  the  under 
side  of  the  branches  (Fig.  141). 

Control. — Commercial  lime-sulfur  may  be  used  as  a  spray 
against  this  insect,  applying  it  before  the  leaves  appear.  The 
spraying  may  be  repeated  in  July,  employing  the  summer  strength. 
Directions  for  using  this  are  found  upon  the  can. 

ATTACKING  THE  LEAVES  OF  PLUM 

The  Plum  Gall-mite. — This  is  not  an  insect,  but  an  allied  form 
belonging  to  the  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  known  asArach- 
nida.     Like  other  members   of  the  group,  it  has,  in  the  adult 
stage,  eight  legs  instead  of  six.     It  is  sometimes  called  the  Pear- 
leaf  Blister-mite.  (See  page  1 10) .  It  is  barely  visible,  but  is  destruc- 
tive, in  that  by  its  work  it  causes 
the  leaves  to  become  distorted 
into  the  peculiar  galls  shown  in 
the  illustration  (Fig.  142). 

Control. — The  only  method 
of  control  that  can  be  suggested 
at  this  time  is  to  pick  off  and 
burn  the  abnormal  leaves,  thus 
destroying  the  pests  within. 
Commercial  lime-sulfur  is  used 
^  as  a  dormant  spray  to  destroy 

the  winter  forms. 

The  Plum-leaf  Aphis  (Hyo- 

lopterus  arundinis). — The  eggs  of  this  aphis  are  laid  on  the  plum 
twigs  in  the  fall  and  hatch  in  the  spring.  Two  or  three  genera- 
tions are  developed  in  the  early  summer  on  the  plum,  and  then  the 
insect  migrates  to  other  food  plants,  returning  to  the  plum  in  the 
fall.  This  migration  is  accomplished  by  winged  generations. 

Injury. — This  louse  is  extremely  injurious  in  that  it  sucks  the 
juices  of  the  leaves  and  tender  twigs,  causing  the  leaves  to  drop 
prematurely,  checking  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  preventing  the 
proper  fruiting.  If  it  occurs  hi  large  numbers,  the  tree  appears 
blighted. 

Control. — About  a  week  before  the  buds  open,  spray  the  trees 
with  one  of  the  tobacco  extracts,  such  as  Black  Leaf  40;  or 
us'e  whale  oil  soap,  one  pound  to  fifty  gallons.  Trees  sprayed  with 
lime-sulfur  for  the  twig  borer  just  before  blossoming  should  not 
be  troubled  with  aphids.  This  compound  might  also  be  used  on 


MOTTLED  PLUM-TREE  DAGGER  MOTH 


119 


the  foliage  if  aphids  become  numerous.  In  spraying  against 
aphids  or  plant  lice,  the  spray  must  reach  the  insects  under  the 
curled  leaves  and  strike  them  with  some  force.  Dipping  the 
affected  tips  of  the  branches  in  a  pan  of  nicotine  sulfate  solu- 
tion and  shaking  the  submerged  twigs  in  the  liquid  is  very  effi- 
cacious and  practical.  For  this  use  a  tablespoonful  to  a  gallon 
of  water. 

The  Plum-tree  Sphinx. — The  adult  moth  of  this  species  (Sphinx 
drupiferarum  S.  and  A.)  lays  its  pale  yellowish  green  eggs  singly, 
on  the  leaves  of  the  plum.  These  eggs  hatch  in  six  to  eight  days. 
The  full  grown  larva  is  rich  green  with  lateral  dark  spots;  oblique 
bands  appear  on  each  side  of  the  body.  It  enters  the  ground  a  few 
inches  to  pupate,  forming  an  earthen  chamber.  The  pupa  is  dark, 
reddish  brown  and  the  pupal  stage  lasts  from  fall  until  the  following 
spring.  Figure  143  illustrates  the  moth. 


-tree  sphinx.     (Lugger.) 


Control. — This  insect  seldom  needs  special  attention.  Four 
pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  is  the 
usual  remedy  suggested.  Hand-picking  may  be  resorted  to. 

Mottled  Plum-tree  Dagger  Moth. — The  larva  of  this  moth 
(Acronycta  super  arts  Guen.)  is  usually  greenish,  but  may  vary  in 
color,  showing  a  broad  chestnut-colored  stripe  along  the  back. 
There  are  several  tubercles  bearing  hairs  on  each  segment,  and 
other  hairs  are  found  along  the  side  of  the  body.  The  caterpillar 
is  one  inch  long,  slightly  compressed.  The  young  caterpillars 
appear  in  June  and  again  late  in  September. 

The  larva  feeds  on  the  foliage  of  plum,  apple,  mountain  ash, 
birch,  etc.  It  is  also  often  found  on  shadberry  and  many  other 
similar  plants. 


120 


PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 


Control. — It  is  seldom  abundant  enough  to  become  a  serious 
pest,  and  is  held  fairly  well  in  check  by  an  ichneumon  fly.  If  a 
spray  is  necessary,  arsenate  of  lead  would  be  very  effective.  The 
larva,  after  pupating,  turns  into  a  grayish  moth. 

The  Plum-tree  Catacola  (Catacola  ultronia  Hubn.). — The  lar- 
val form  of  this  moth  is  a  grayish  brown  caterpillar.  It  is  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  long  when  full  grown.  The  ninth  segment 
bears  a  fleshy  horn  half  an  inch  long,  and  an  irregular  grayish 
patch  occurs  on  each  side  of  the  horn.  There  is  a  low,  fleshy  ridge 
on  the  twelfth  segment  (Fig.  144).  The  under  side  of  the  cater- 
pillar is  pinkish,  and  a  row  of  black  spots  occurs  on  the  mid- 
ventral  line. 

The  adult  moth  has  front  wings  of  rich  amber  color,  darker  at 
the  posterior  margin.  Several  brown  and  white  wavy  lines  cross 


FIG.   144. — Plum-tree  catacola. 

the  wings.  The  hind-wings  are  deep  red,  margined  with  a  broad 
band  of  black.  There  is  also  a  black  band  across  the  middle  of  the 
hind-wings. 

Life  History. — The  winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage,  the  eggs 
being  deposited  in  cracks  in  the  bark.  They  hatch  in  the  spring, 
becoming  full  grown  about  the  end  of  June.  The  moths  emerge 
and  are  on  the  wing  during  the  most  of  July  and  August,  at  which 
time  eggs  are  deposited  for  the  next  brood.  Injury  by  this  insect 
is  not  often  serious. 

Control. — Arsenical  sprays  would  be  effective  if  necessary. 
Jarring  for  plum  curculio  frequently  causes  caterpillars  of  this 
species  to  drop  off. 


RUSTY-BROWN  PLUM  LOUSE 


121 


The  Rusty-brown  Plum  Louse  (Aphis  setarice  Thomas). — This 
rusty-brown  aphid  has  the  base  of  the  antennae  white,  which  color 
also  appears  on  the  legs  and  on  the  posterior  end  of  the  insect. 
It  is  first  observed  in  early  spring  on  tender  shoots  of  the  plum, 
secreting  honey  dew  in  abundance.  Its  secretion  frequently  causes 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  below  the  lice  to  present  a  shiny, 
glistening  effect. 


FIG.   145. — Plum  gouger,  adult,  larva,  and  injured  fruit.     (Lugger.) 

These  lice  remain  on  the  plum  during  the  entire  year,  but 
grasses  may  be  also  attacked  during  the  summer.  As  summer 
advances,  many  of  these  insects  may  become  a  deep  black;  in  fact, 
the  egg-laying  females  and  the  true  males  are  strikingly  black. 
The  oviparous  female  is  wingless,  while  the  male  is  winged. 
Winged  forms  are  produced  at  different  times  during  the  summer 
or  fall. 


122          PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 


Control.  —  As  in  treatment  for  all  plant  lice,  tobacco  extracts 
are  recommended  as  sprays  or  as  dips.  Also  use  soap  solution. 
(See  under  plum  louse.) 


ATTACKING   THE  FRUIT 


The  Plum  Gouger  (Coccotorus  scutellaris  Lee.).  —  This  snout- 
beetle  resembles  somewhat  the  plum  curculio,  but  lacks  the  humps 
on  the  back.  The  insect  is  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  snout 


Fio.   146. — Plum  curculio,  adults,  larva,  pupa,  and  infested  fruit.     (Lugger.)     Hair  lines  indi- 
cate natural  size  in  each  case. 

about  half  the  length  of  the  body.  The  wing-covers  are  lead 
gray,  finely  spotted  with  black  and  brown.  Yellowish  markings 
are  on  the  thorax  and  head  (Fig.  145).  They  feign  death  when 
disturbed. 

Injury. — The  beetles  puncture  the  calyx  and  feed  on  the  ovary 
of  the  flower,  destroying  it.  Later,  for  purpose  of  obtaining  food 
and  for  egg-laying,  they  puncture  the  growing  plum.  These  small 
holes  made  by  the  proboscis  exude  gum.  The  affected  plums  do 


PACIFIC  PEACH-TREE  BORER  123 

not  drop  off  as  is  the  case  with  those  injured  by  the  plum  curculio, 
but  badly  punctured  fruit  becomes  gnarly  and  worthless.  After 
the  egg  is  placed  in  the  puncture  made  by  the  female  beetle,  it  is 
pushed  down  with  the  insect's  snout. 

Life  History. — The  egg  hatches  in  a  few  days,  the  grub  working 
toward  the  kernel  of  the  pit.  It  is  single-brooded,  its  complete 
development  requiring  about  three  months.  It  hibernates  in  the 
adult  stages,  appearing  on  the  tree  at  blossoming  time. 

Control. — If  this  pest  is  unusually  abundant,  use  a  spray  of 
two  to  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  a  barrel  of  water,  just 
as  the  blossoms  fall,  and  again  three  weeks  later. 

The  Plum  Curculio. — Full  treatment  is  given  under  apple 
insects,  as  in  some  localities  it  is  a  destructive  pest  of  the  apple. 
Figure  146  is  an  excellent  representation  of  this  insect  in  its  various 
stages  and  of  the  injury  it  causes  upon  stone  fruits. 

Supplementary  List  for  Plum. — Many  other  insects  besides 
those  just  described  are  less  commonly  found  attacking  the  plum. 
In  the  following  list  the  pages  given  are  for  the  descriptions  given 
in  this  book. 

Apple-leaf  hopper,  p.  83  lo  emperor  moth,  p.  128 

Banded  hair-streak  "June  bug,"  p.  211 

Blind-eyed  sphinx  Leaf  crumpler,  p.  98 

Bud-moth,  p.  98  Long-horned  prominent 

Buffalo  tree-hopper,  p.  78  Oblique-banded  leaf  roller,  p.  96 

Brown  fruit  chafer,  p.  105  Oyster-shell  bark-louse,  p.  72 

Cecropia  silk  moth,  p.  91  Putnam  scale,  p.  74 

Cherry -leaf  beetle,  p.  132  Rose  chafer,  p.  156 

Cherry-tree  scale,  p.  127  San  Jose  scale,  p.  70 

Cherry-tree  thecla  Scurfy  scale,  p.  73 

Dominican  case- bearer  Tarnished  plant  bug,  p.  84 

Double-eyed  sphinx  Tent  caterpillar,  p.  78 

Fall  canker  worm,  p.  89  Thysbe  clear  wing 

Fall  web  worm,  p.  265  Tree  cricket,  p.  140 

Flat-headed  apple-tree  borer,  p.  188       Unicorn  prominent 

Grape  flea  beetle,  p.  155  Viceroy 

Gray  dagger-moth  White-marked  tussock  moth,  p.  269 

Hop  plant-louse,  p.  214 

ATTACKING    TRUNK,    BRANCHES,    AND    TWIGS    OF    PEACH 

For  a  discussion  of  the  Eastern  peach-tree  borer  which  injures 
peach  trees  see  page  113.  And  for  a  treatment  of  the  fruit-tree 
bark  beetle,  see  page  5. 

Pacific  Peach-tree  Borer  (Sanninoidea  opalescens  Edw.). — This 
species  is  found  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  it  exhibits  the  same 
habits  as  its  eastern  congener,  and  resembles  it  closely.  The  steel- 


124          PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 

blue  abdomen  of  the  female,  however,  lacks  the  yellow  band  seen 
in  the  eastern  form. 

The  same  measures  of  control  as  employed  against  the  eastern 
form  are  adaptable  in  the  case  of  this  west  coast  species.  See 
treatment  for  peach-tree  borer. 

The  Peach  Twig-borer. — This  small  gray  moth  (Anarsia 
lineatella  Zell),  barely  one-half  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip  of  extended 
wings,  is  an  importation  from  Europe  and  a  serious  peach  pest  in 
many  of  our  states,  particularly  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  brownish  larva  is  about  one-half  an  inch  long  when  adult. 
During  its  active  life  it  bores  in  the  pith  of  tender  growth,  causing 
the  tips  of  branches  to  wither  and  die  (Fig.  147).  The  insect  at 
this  stage  is  very  active  and  voracious,  and  crawls  from  twig  to 
twig,  causing  extensive  injury.  It  pupates  under  scales  of  bark  on 
large  branches.  The  female  moth  lays  her 
white  eggs  on  the  young  twigs.  About  ten 
days  are  required  for  hatching. 

Fruit  may  be  attacked  by  the  second  brood 
of  caterpillars,  and  the  third  brood  feed  entirely 
on  the  fruit.  A  fourth  brood  of  caterpillar 
gives  rise  to  the  moths  whose  eggs,  placed  in 
cracks  in  the  bark,  produce  the  caterpillars 
which  winter  over  in  bark  close  to  the  young 

FIG.    147. — The  peach      PTOWth. 

twig-borer.  „...         , 

Control  Measures. — The  best  measure  of 

combating  this  pest  is  by  the  use  of  frequent  winter  sprayings  of 
lime-sulfur.  Use  one  part  commercial  lime-sulfur  to  ten  of  water. 
In  the  spring,  from  the  time  of  the  swelling  of  the  buds  until  the 
blossoms  begin  to  appear,  a  little  later,  just  as  the  blossoms  show 
pink,  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  five  or  six 
pounds  in  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

Terrapin  Scale  or  Peach  Lecanium. — This  is  a  turtle-shaped 
or  terrapin-shaped  scale  (Lecanium  nigrofasciatum  Perg.)  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  when  full  grown.  It  is  brownish  or 
reddish  in  color;  individuals  may  be  found  which  are  nearly 
black.  The  young  hatch  beneath  the  mother  scale  and  attach 
themselves  to  the  leaves  later.  After  the  females  have  been  fertil- 
ized by  winged  males,  they  migrate  to  the  twigs  and  branches. 

Control  Measures. — Spray  with  miscible  oils  when  the  trees  are 
dormant.  Care  has  to  be  observed  in  using  this  spray  on  the  peach. 
It  should  not  be  used  in  the  fall,  but  is  best  applied  in  early  spring. 


GREEN  JUNE  BEETLE  125 

Miscible  oils  are  commercial  sprays  known  as  "Scalecide"  and 
"Kil-O-Scale."  Other  dormant  sprays  for  scale  insects  would 
probably  be  equally  effective. 

Tree  Crickets  sometimes  inflict  serious  injury,  directly  and 
indirectly,  upon  peach  trees,  cherry  trees,  and  many  others. 
Figure  148  illustrates  some  of  these.  (See  also  page  140.) 

ATTACKING  THE  LEAVES  AND  FRUIT  OF  PEACH 

The  Black  Peach  Aphis. — This  is  blackish  or  brownish  larva  of 
Aphis  per sicce-niger  Smith.  It  is  found  on  leaves,  and  in  the  winter 
and  summer  wingless  forms  occur  on  the  roots.  Some  of  these 
later  migrate  to  leaves  when  they  appear.  Their  life  history  is, 
in  a  general  way,  similar  to  that  of  other  aphids  or  plant  lice,  and, 
like  other  forms,  they  multiply  with  amazing  rapidity.  The  yel- 
lowing of  peach  leaves  is  frequently  due  to  the  presence  of  the 
underground  form,  which,  though  unseen,  is  sucking  the  vitality 
from  the  tree. 

Measures  of  Control. — Frequent  spraying  with  tobacco  ex- 
tract is  effective  against  the  leaf  form  if  applied  with  force 
to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  Use  two  tablespoonfuls  of  nico- 
tine sulfate  in  one  gallon  of  water  with  a  little  soap.  For  the 
root  form  remove  some  of  the  earth  from  about  the  roots  and 
apply  a  liberal  quantity  of  tobacco  dust  or  tobacco  stems,  covering 
the  same  with  earth. 

Trees  received  from  an  infested  nursery  may  bring  this  pest 
into  an  orchard  which  would  otherwise  be  free.  If  lice  are  observed 
upon  the  roots  of  such  trees  when  purchased,  dip  the  roots  in  a 
strong  tobacco  solution. 

The  Tarnished  Plant  Bug  or  "Peach  Sting."— This  insect, 
discussed  on  page  84,  frequently  attacks  young  trees  twenty  to 
twenty-four  inches  high,  causing  the  terminal  bud  to  wilt. 
This  may  occur  on  both  leader  and  lateral.  Since  a  portion  of  the 
life  of  this  insect  is  passed  on  various  weeds  and  cultivated  plants, 
clean  cultivation  in  and  about  an  orchard  is  recommended. 

The  Green  June  Beetle. — These  greenish  beetles  (Allorhina 
nitida  Linn.)  have  yellowish  markings  on  the  side.  They  frequently 
feed  upon  the  fruit  of  the  peach.  The  clumsy,  whitish  grubs  from 
which  they  develop  in  two  years  are  found  in  the  ground,  particu- 
larly where  it  has  been  abundantly  treated  with  manure  or  other 
dressing  (Fig.  149). 

Repeated  hand-picking  and  destruction  of  the  beetles  appears 


FIG.  148. — Peaches  suffer  at  times  from  attacks  of  tree  crickets;  1,  scars  in  peach  wood 
caused  by  epg-laying;  2,  brown  rot  infection  of  peaches  following  feeding.  Photo  by  Garman. 
(Parrott  and  Fulton,  Geneva  Bull.,  388.) 


EUROPEAN  FRUIT  EULECANIUM 


127 


to  be  the  only  practical  remedy.     This  beetle  also  attacks  the 
fig,  in  which  connection  it  is  known  as  uThe  Fig  Eater." 
Supplementary  list  of  peach  insects. — 


Codling  moth 
Peach  saw  fly 
Pear  thrips 


Plum  curculio 
Tent  caterpillars 
White  peach  scale 


ATTACKING    TRUNKS   AND    BRANCHES    OF    THE    CHERRY 

The  Flat-headed  Cherry-tree  Borer  or  Divaricated  Buprestis  is 

discussed  on  page  117;  it  attacks  several  of  the  stone-fruit  trees. 

The  Cherry-tree  Scale  or  Bark-louse. — This  black  scale  (Eule- 

canium  cerasifex   Fitch)    is   found    on   the  lower  side  of  limbs 


FIG.   149. — The  southern  June-beetle,  or  fig  eater:  a,  adult;  6,  grub;  c,  pupa  in  cell; 

d,  empty  cell. 

of  the  cherry  tree.  Egg  masses  are  produced  under  the  scale,  and 
the  young,  upon  hatching,  in  the  early  summer,  spread  over  the 
tree,  attaching  themselves  finally  to  the  under  side  of  tender 
branches,  where  they  soon  cover  themselves  with  a  scaly  secretion. 
The  adult  stage  is  reached  before  the  beginning  of  whiter. 

Control. — The  usual  summer  and  whiter  treatment  for  scale 
applies  in  the  case  of  this  insect. 

The  European  Fruit  Eulecanium. — This  scale  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  preceding  insect,  and  is  a  related  species,  E.  corni 
Bouche.  It  injures  the  tree  by  sucking  the  sap  therefrom  and  thus 
interferes  with  the  growth.  The  adult  scale  is  one-eighth  of  an 


128 


PLUM,.  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 


inch  long,  nearly  hemispherical;  yellowish  when  young,  becoming 
dark  and  shiny  when  older.  The  hard  part  of  this  and  allied 
scales  is  really  a  part  of  the  insect  and  not  separable  from  the 
insect,  as  is  the  case  with  the  oyster-shell  scale,  San 
Jose  scale  and  some  others. 

Control. — The  life  history  and  control  is  practi- 
cally the  same  as  in  the  preceding  species. 

The  Dog  Day  Cicada. — This  is  a  well-known 
insect  in  many  latitudes  (Cicada  tibicen  Linn.). 
It  is  seen  and  heard  during  August  and  September 
and  is  commonly  called  " locust."  The  upper  side 
of  the  body  is  black,  the  head  and  thorax  being 
mottled  with  olive  green.  The  large,  transparent 
wings  are  strongly  veined;  the  more  prominent 
veins  have  a  greenish  tinge.  The  under  side  of 
the  body  is  coated  with  a  whitish  powder.  The 
legs  are  greenish  (Fig.  150).  Not  much  is 
da?Scada?'7i5ig-  known  regarding  the  larvae.  Probably  both 
&er-)  the  larval  and  pupal  stages  resemble  those 

of   the   periodical   cicada  or   so-called   " seventeen-year   locust." 
Like  other  species,  the  adult  often  wounds  the  small  limbs  of 
the  cherry  and  deposits  eggs  in  the  wounds. 

INSECTS   ATTACKING    THE    LEAVES    OF    CHERRY 

lo  Emperor  Moth. — The  male  of  this  striking  moth  (Hyper- 
chiria  io  Linn.)  is  of  a  deep  yellow  color,  with  faint  purple-brown 
markings.  There  are  two  oblique,  wavy  lines  near  the  outer  margin 
of  the  fore-wings  and  a  zigzag  line  near  the  base.  There  are  also 
other  markings  and  blackish  dots  on  the  fore-wings.  The  hind- 
wings  are  of  a  deeper  yellow  color,  shaded  with  purple  next  to  the 
body  and  with  a  large  blue  eye-spot  in  the  center.  The  wing 
expanse  is  about  two  and  one-half  inches. 

In  the  female,  the  hind-wings  are  somewhat  like  those  of  the 
male.  The  fore-wings  are  somewhat  duller  in  color,  and  the  wing 
expanse  is  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  inches. 

The  larvae. — The  dark-colored  larvae  keep  together  while  young 
in  small  swarms,  and  when  moving  march  in  a  procession,  as  it 
were.  Later  they  lose  this  habit  and  spread,  maturing  late  in  the 
summer.  When  full  grown,  they  are  two  and  one-half  inches 
long,  approximately,  pale  green,  the  green  becoming  paler  along 
the  back,  and  there  is  a  broad,  dusky-white  stripe  on  each  side 
margined  with  lilac.  The  body  of  the  larva  is  covered  with 


CHERRY  LOUSE  129 

bunches  of  branching  spines,  tipped  with  black.    These  spines  are 
capable  of  inflicting  a  painful  wound  on  tender  skin. 

The  caterpillars  feed  not  only  upon  cherry  but  also  upon 
apple,  willow,  elm,  poplar,  oak,  currant,  clover,  etc. 

Control. — If  troublesome,  the  species  may  be  easily  controlled 
by  hand-picking.  Gloves  should  be  worn  for  this  work.  As 
stated  elsewhere,  a  spray  of  arsenate  of  lead  controls  all  leaf- 
eating  forms  of  bisects  without  injury  to  the  most  tender  tree. 

The  Pear  and  Cherry  Slug. — This  insect  in  its  immature  form 
is  a  small,  dark  green,  slimy  slug  (Eriocampoides  limacina  Ratz). 
It  later  turns  into  a  black,  four-winged 
insect  known  as  a  saw-fly  (Fig.  151). 

Life  History.— The  female  lays  eggs 
in  the  tissues  of  the  leaves,  at  inter- 
vals during  the  summer,  giving  rise  to 
several  broods  of  slugs.  This  slug,  when 
first  hatched,  is  whitish.  There  are  ap- 
parently four  moults .  After  the  last  moult 
it  loses  its  slimy  appearance  and  becomes 
yellowish  hi  color,  crawling  or  falling  to 
the  ground  and  forming  a  pupal  chamber 
three  or  four  inches  below  the  surface,  FlG'  151-~cherry  alu« on  leaf- 
emerging  as  an  adult,  four-winged  saw-fly  in  two  or  three  weeks. 

Injury. — This  slug  feeds  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves  of 
cherry,  plum,  etc.,  causing  the  foliage  to  wither  and  appear 
scorched  as  by  fire. 

Control.— Spraying  with  a  weak  solution  of  arsenate  of  lead 
will  prove  effective.  Use  one  pound  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  Or 
use  white  hellebore,  one  ounce  to  three  gallons  of  water.  Air- 
slaked  lime  or  even  road  dust  thrown  on  this  insect  is  fatal.  Trees 
protected  from  other  insects  by  arsenical  sprays  would  not  be 
injured  by  this  pest. 

The  Cherry  Louse  (Myzus  cerasi  Fabr.).— -These  are  black, 
shiny  plant  lice,  working  upon  the  young  shoots  and  tender  foliage 
of  cherry  trees. 

Description  and  Life  History.— Like  other  plant  lice,  they 
multiply  with  great  rapidity,  giving  birth  to  living  young  during 
the  summer.  Also,  like  other  members  of  this  group,  they 
secrete  a  sticky  honey  dew  which  attracts  ants,  wasps,  and 
two-winged  flies.  Winged  generations  appear  during  the  summer. 
The  last  generation  in  the  fall  usually  produces  winter  eggs. 
These,  in  turn,  hatch  into  " stem-mothers,"  which,  in  the  following 
9 


w/ 

5-(w/i>  1         .( 


FIG.  152. — A.  sorbi,  1,  2,  3,  infesting  apple.     Myzus  cerasi,  4,  5,  6,  infesting  cherry.    (After 
Kirchner  and  Boltshauser.) 


CHERRY  LOUSE 


131 


spring,  start  new  generations.    See  figure  152,  which  also  illustrates 
A .  sorbi,  occurring  on  apple  trees. 

Control. — These  insects  may  be  controlled  with  any  of  the 
tobacco  extracts.       Special  care  must  be  taken  to  strike  all  the 


Fio.   153. — Cherry-le 


i;  3,  pupa;  4, 


adult.     (From  Geneva  Bull.) 


lice,  which  are  concealed  under  the  leaves,  with  the  spray  solution. 
A  better  way,  where  trees  are  in  the  nursery  or  not  too  large,  is  to 
bend  over  the  affected  branches  and  swash  the  infested  tips  in  a 
pan  of  tobacco  extract.  Black  Leaf  40,  for  example,  may  be  used 


132          PLUM,  PEACH,  AND  CHERRY  INSECTS 

at  the  rate  of  two  tablespoonfuls  in  a  gallon  of  water.  This  is 
the  best  way  to  handle  all  plant  lice  on  the  ends  of  branches  upon 
trees  not  too  high  for  such  treatment. 

Cherry-leaf  Beetle. — Ordinarily,  attacks  on  the  part  of  this 
insect  (Galerucella  cavicolis  Lee.)  are  confined  to  wild  cherry,  but 
early  in  the  summer  these  beetles  freely  attack  cherries  in  orchards. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adults  are  small  red  beetles 
which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  spring  in  soil  close  to  the  trees,  but 
they  may  be  placed  on  the  bark.  About  three  weeks  are  required 
for  hatching.  The  grubs  are  born  with  black  head.  When  full 
grown  they  are  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long.  The  pupae  are 
found  in  the  ground  during  the  latter  part  of  July  (Fig.  153). 

Remedial  Measures. — Use  arsenate  of  lead  spray  or  nicotine 
sulfate. 

Supplementary  List  for  Cherry. — The  following  are  other  in- 
sects which  attack  the  cherry.  See  page  references  to  those  de- 
scribed in  this  volume. 

American  tent  caterpillar,  p.  78  Forest  tent-caterpillar,  p.  80 

Apple-twig  borer,  p.  157  Gray  dagger-moth 

Canker  worm,  p.  87  Leaf  crumpler,  p.  98 

Cecropia  silkworm,  p.  91  Oak  pruner,  p.  281 

Cherry-tree  leaf-folder  Purblind  sphinx 

Cherry-tree  Thecla  San  Jose"  scale,  p.  70 

Eye-spotted  bud-moth,  p.  86  Tarnished  plant-bug,  p.  84 

Fall  web  worm,  p.  265  Tree  crickets,  p.  140 

FIG    INSECTS 

The  Fig  Eater  or  June  Bug. — For  a  description  of  this  insect,  see 
page  127.  Fig  trees  attacked  should  be  jarred,  causing  the  beetles 
to  fall  on  sheets  below  the  tree,  where  they  can  easily  be  gathered 

up  and  destroyed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  life  history  of  peach-tree  borer.    Describe  injury  caused  by  same  and 

enumerate  protective  measures  and  other  methods  of  control. 

2.  Enumerate  the  injuries  caused  by  the  peach-twig  borer. 

3.  Give  life  history  of  plum-leaf  aphis.     What  measures  would  you  take 

against  it? 

4.  Describe  the  work  and  give  life  history  of  the  plum  curculio  and  methods 

of  control. 

5.  Dp  the  same  with  the  plum  gouger. 

6.  Give  life  history  of  the  black  peach  aphis  and  control  measures. 

7.  Give  life  history  of  the  flat-headed  cherry-tree  borer  and  remedial  measures. 

8.  Give  life  history  of  the  Dog  Day  cicada  and  describe  its  work. 

9.  Describe  and  give  control  measures  for  the  pear  slug. 

10.  Describe  the  lo  emperor  moth. 

11.  What  are  methods  of  controlling  the  cherry  louse? 

12.  Describe  and  discuss  the  cherry-leaf  beetle.    Give  methods  of  control 


CHAPTER  X 
INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

BERRY  growers  are  found  over  a  large  portion  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  many  sections  berry-growing  is  the  chief  means  of 
livelihood.  Grapes,  which'  are  really  berries,  botanically,  are 
grown  commercially  in  favored  localities.  The  bisect  pests  affect- 
ing these  plants  are  given  in  this  chapter. 

INSECTS    INJURING    STRAWBERRIES 
Attacking  the  Roots  of  Strawberry  Plants. 

The  Strawberry  Crown-borer. — The  adult  beetle  (Tyloderma 
fragarice  Riley)  is  wingless,  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  long.  It  is 
brown,  marked  with  several  dark  brown  spots,  as  well  as  with 
lines  and  dots  running  lengthwise  of  the  body  (Fig.  154).  When 
full  grown  the  grub  is  white,  with  a  horny,  yellow  head. 


a.  I 

FIG.   154.— The  strawberry  crown-borer.     (After  Riley.) 

Life  History. — It  is  first  observed  in  June  or  July,  at  which 
time  it  deposits  an  egg  on  the  crown  of  the  plant.  The  grub,  after 
hatching,  burrows  down  into  the  crown,  feeding  upon  the  tissues. 
The  pupal  or  resting  stage  is  passed  within  the  crown  or  root,  the 
adult  emerging  some  time  hi  late  summer. 

Control. — Infested  plants  are  almost  sure  to  succumb.  These 
should  be  dug  and  burned  after  the  fruiting  season  and  before  the 
grub  has  time  to  complete  its  transformation  and  emerge  as  an 
adult.  If  strawberries  are  cropped  only  one  year  and  if  a  bed  is 
placed  at  a  distance  from  the  bed  of  the  preceding  year,  the  danger 
of  serious  injury  from  this  insect  is  but  slight. 

133 


134       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

The  Strawberry  Crown-miner. — The  species  here  referred  to  is 
regarded  by  some  as  identical  with  Anarsia  lineatella  Zell,  which 
was  described  under  insects  affecting  peach.  In  the  strawberry, 
the  caterpillar  becomes  fully  grown  in  early  summer,  changing  to 
a  small,  reddish-brown  chrysalis  in  one  of  the  cavities  excavated 
in  the  crown  or  in  the  dead  leaves.  The  moth,  upon  emerging, 
lays  eggs  in  the  crowns  of  several  plants,  depositing  usually  but 
one  egg  in  each.  This  is  done  during  middle  and  late  summer. 
These  eggs  soon  hatch  and  the  caterpillar  bores  into  the  heart  of 
the  plant,  remaining  in  its  excavated  chamber  during  the  winter, 
enclosed  in  a  silken  cell.  Affected  plants  wither  and  die.  Even 
if  they  survive  the  attack,  the  plants  are  weak  and  worthless. 
Control. — No  practical  remedy  is  known.  Badly  infested 
plants  should  be  dug  up,  burned,  and  new 
ones  planted.  New  beds  should  be  set 
each  year  in  new  locations. 

The  Strawberry  Root-louse  (Aphis 
forbesi  Weed). — This  species  passes  the 
winter  in  the  egg  stage.  The  eggs  are 
black  and  clustered  on  the  stems  and 
leaves.  They  hatch  in  early  spring.  The 
young  aphids  attack  the  leaves  and  later 
the  crowns  of  the  plants.  They  become 
adult  in  about  twelve  days  and  then  pro- 
155.  — The  strawberry  duce  living  young  (Fig.  155).  The  second 

root-louse.     (Original.)  .      &  /        .       ,  rm  • 

generation  is  wingless.  This  generation  is 

generally  taken  to  the  roots  by  the  corn-field  ants,  which  are 
attracted  on  account  of  the  sweet  juice  secreted  by  the  lice. 

Many  of  the  third  brood  are  winged  and  are  carried  to  other 
plants  by  the  wind.  Winged  forms  may  also  appear  at  any  time 
when  food  is  lacking.  These  winged  forms  start  new  colonies. 
The  fourth  generation  appears  in  early  summer  and  contains  some 
winged  forms.  The  sexual  forms  appear  in  the  fall,  the  females 
then  laying  eggs,  in  which  stage  the  winter  is  passed. 

Injury. — Frequently,  as  a  result  of  the  work  of  this  insect,  one 
sees  portions  of  a  strawberry  bed  wither,  causing  bare  spots  in  the 
patch,  and  ants  may  be  observed  about  infested  plants. 

Control. — Avoid  buying  infested  plants  or  using  infested  plants 
for  starting  new  beds.  If  plants  with  infested  roots  must  be 
planted,  dip  the  roots  in  tobacco  decoction  before  planting.  If 
a  new  bed  must  be  planted  near  an  old  infested  bed,  plow  the  old 


WHITE  GRUBS 


135 


bed  under  the  previous  fall.  If  the  aphids  appear  early  in  the 
spring,  spray  the  strawberry  crown  with  nicotine  solution — 
one  part  to  1000  parts  of  water.  Affected  plants  intended  for 
shipment  should  be  fumigated  for  ten  minutes  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas,  made  by  using:  Potassium  cyanide,  1  ounce;  sulfuric 
acid,  2  ounces;  water,  4  ounces.  This  is  for  every  one  hundred 
cubic  feet  of  space.  (See  page  62.)  The  deadly  nature  of  this  gas 
should  not  be  overlooked,  and  precautions  must  be  taken  to  insure 
safety.  (See  also  methods  of  control  given  under  strawberry 
crown-borer  and  strawberry  crown  miner.) 

White  Grubs. — The  larval  forms  of  different  species  of  Lach- 
nosterna  are  called  June  beetles,  May  beetles,  or  June  "bugs." 
The  larvae  are  commonly  called  grub  worms.  They  are  un- 
doubtedly the  worst  of  the  pests  attacking  strawberries.  They 
feed  also  on  potatoes,  roots  of  young  evergreens  in  nurseries,  and 
roots  of  young  apple  stock.  A  strawberry  crop  following  directly 
after  sod  is  very  apt  to  suffer,  since  the  grubs,  deprived  of  their 
natural  food,  turn  their  attention  to  cultivated  plants. 

Life  History. — Ordinarily,  eggs  are  laid  by  the  beetles  in  grass 
or  sod  lands  some  time  in  May  or  June.  Grubs  hatch  in  July  and 
begin  feeding  on  rootlets.  They  grow  to  less  than  one-half  inch 
during  the  first  season,  retiring,  so  it  is  claimed,  below  the 
frost  line  when  winter  sets  in.  This  statement  is  questionable 
where  northern  latitudes  are  concerned.  The  second  season  they 
continue  feeding  and  grow  to  about  one  inch  in  length.  Growth 
is  completed  the  third  season  in  midsummer,  and  the  pupal  stage 
is  passed  in  a  cell  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the 
pupa  gradually  changing  to  an  adult,  and  remaining  below  the 
ground  until  the  following  May,  when  it  emerges. 

Control. — Where  these  white  grubs  are  actually  hi  a  strawberry 
field,  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  dig  them  out  when  a  plant  shows 
injury.  If  it  is  necessary  to  use  sod  land  for  strawberries,  such 
land  should  be  plowed  hi  early  September.  This  process  tends  to 
kill  a  portion  of  the  brood  ready  to  transform,  but  will  not  kill  the 
younger  grubs  while  hi  the  ground.  A  rotation  of  crops  is  desirable, 
and  the  sod  should  be  followed  with  some  crop  other  than  straw- 
berries for  two  years  or  more.  Clover  is  said  to  be  ideal  for  this 
purpose,  as  these  insects  do  not  attack  it  severely.  Cropping  straw- 
berries for  one  year  only  is  manifestly  another  way  of  avoiding 
injury.  Where  hogs  can  be  used  in  infected  land,  they  are  a  great 
help.  Since  the  most  severe  injury  from  white  grubs  is  periodic, 


136       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

experiment  station  workers  in  the  various  states  can  generally 
advise  their  constituents  of  the  probable  occurrence  in  numbers 
of  this  pest  and  make  suggestions  regarding  strawberry  planting. 

Attacking  the  Leaves  of  Strawberry  Plants. 

The  Strawberry  Leaf-roller. — This  moth  (Ancylis  comptana 
Froehl.)  appears  in  the  strawberry  fields  during  May,  and,  shortly 
after,  eggs  are  laid  on  the  under  side  of  leaves.  The  small  brownish 
or  greenish  larvae  hatch  in  five  to  seven  days  and  at  once  begin 
feeding  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  (Fig.  156).  At  first 
they  are  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  and  feed  unprotected ; 
but  they  soon  begin  to  draw  the  sides  of  the  leaves  together  until 
they  are  concealed  in  a  complete  fold.  Feeding  continues  within 
the  shelter,  and  pupation  occurs  about  four  weeks  later,  within 
the  leaf.  The  moth  emerges  nine  or  ten  days  later.  There  are 
three  broods  each  season. 


ct  t 

FIG.  156. — The  strawberry  leaf-roller:  a,  larva,  natural  size;  b,  anterior  segments  of  larva, 
enlarged;  c,  adult,  hair  lines  indicating  length  of  insect  and  spread  of  wings. 

Control. — Old  leaves  should  be  burned  on  the  patch  in  the  late 
fall.  When  a  strawberry  patch  is  no  longer  useful,  it  should  be 
completely  plowed  under  in  autumn  or  early  spring.  The  patches, 
when  bearing,  call  for  a  properly  timed  spraying  with  four  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water.  This  spraying 
should  be  made  about  a  week  after  the  moths  are  first  noticed. 
By  that  time  the  eggs  first  laid  will  be  hatching,  but  no  leaves  will 
yet  be  folded. 

The  spraying  should  completely  cover  the  upper  surfaces  of 
the  leaves,  but  should  never  be  used  after  the  berries  begin  to 
color.  One  is  further  advised  to  avoid  the  use  of  plants  from 
infested  districts. 

The  Obsolete-banded  Leaf-roller. — The  adult  of  this  insect 
(Ar chips  obsoletana  Walk.)  is  a  small,  brown  moth  appearing  in 
spring,  and  depositing  eggs  which  overlap  in  clusters.  The  larvae, 
hatching  in  about  ten  days,  are  light  yellow  in  color,  with  brownish 
heads. 


STRAWBERRY  WEEVIL  137 

Injury. — They  feed  on  the  under  side  of  leaves,  skeletonizing 
small  areas.  They  roll  the  leaves  and  fasten  them  with  fine  webs. 

Broods. — When  full  grown,  these  caterpillars  spin  thin  cocoons 
and  remain  in  the  pupal  stage  about  ten  days.  The  first  brood  of 
larvae  appears  in  the  spring,  and  a  second  brood  early  in  the  fall. 
Their  method  of  hibernation  is  somewhat  in  doubt. 

Control. — A  patch  known  to  be  infested  should  be  sprayed  with 
arsenate  of  lead  just  before  the  blossoms  open  in  the  spring.  Spray 
thoroughly  after  the  fruit  has  been  picked.  Or  the  strawberry 
tops  should  be  mowed  soon  after  the  fruit  is  picked,  and  when 
dry  burn  them  on  the  field.  See  also  method  of  control  given  under 
the  strawberry-leaf  roller. 

The  Strawberry  Slug. — The  adult  is  a  four-winged  fly  (Empria 
maculata  Norton)  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  row 
of  small  white  spots  along  each  side  of  the  abdomen.  The  larvae 
resemble  small  green  worms.  They  feed  upon  the  leaves  for 
five  or  six  weeks  and  then  enter  the  ground  to  pass  the  winter  in 
the  pupal  stage. 

Control. — If  there  is  fruit  on  the  plants,  spray  with  white  helle- 
bore ;  use  two  ounces  to  three  gallons  of  water.  Dusting  with  Paris 
green  and  air-slaked  lime  is  effective  and  may  be  used  when  there 
is  no  fruit  present.  After  the  last  picking  the  tops  should  be  mowed 
and  the  field  burned  over. 

Attacking  the  Fruit. 

The  Strawberry  Weevil. — This  is  a  small,  black  or  brown 
snout  beetle  (Anthonomus  signatus  Say)  about  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  long. 

Life  History. — After  depositing  its  eggs  in  fruit  buds,  it  gnaws 
the  stem  just  below  the  bud,  causing  it  to  wilt.  The  young  grubs 
feed  on  the  wilted  bud  for  a  few  weeks  and  then  change  to  pupae. 
The  adults  later  emerge  from  the  dried  buds  and  go  to  other 
flowers  for  feeding  purposes.  They  disappear'  about  the  middle  of 
summer,  at  which  time  they  probably  go  into  permanent  quarters 
for  the  following  winter.  There  is  only  one  brood. 

Since  young  and  old  feed  upon  pollen,  pistillate  varieties  of 
strawberries — that  is,  strawberries  lacking  stamens — are  exempt 
from  attack.  Late  in  the  season  the  adult  beetles  feed  upon  the 
leaves. 

Control. — Clean  culture  is  very  essential  in  controlling  this 
insect,  since  it  passes  the  winter  under  rubbish  in  the  field.  Old 


138       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

fields  should  be  plowed  as  soon  as  the  berries  are  picked.  The 
leaves  might  be  sprayed  after  the  crop  is  gathered.  Use  arsenate 
of  lead  at  the  rate  of  three  pounds  in  fifty  gallons  of  water.  Plant 
pistillate  varieties  as  far  as  possible. 

Ground  beetles  at  times  cause  injury  by  gnawing  into  the 
fruit  of  the  strawberry.  These  insects  (Harpalus  pennsylvanicus 
DeG.  and#.  caliginosus  Fabr.)  are,  for  the  most  part,  carnivorous, 
attacking  injurious  caterpillars,  and  hence  are  beneficial.  They 
probably  attack  the  strawberry  for  its  seeds,  but  their  fondness 
for  seed  has  extended  to  the  pulp  also.  Their  work  is  done  mostly 
at  night,  the  beetles  hiding  under  stones  or  clods  of  earth  or  mulch 
during  the  day.  The  larvae  or  grubs  live  in  the  ground. 

Control. — Experiments  hi  the  control  of  these  insects  have  never 
been  fully  worked  out.  The  beetles  are  attracted  to  strong  lights 
at  night  and  may  be  trapped  by  lanterns  or  may  be  caught  in 
traps  with  meat  baits.  Short  pieces  of  boards  also  may  be  placed 
at  intervals  over  the  patch  and  offer  favorable  hiding  places.  The 
bisects  gather  under  these  boards  and  can  be  collected  and  killed 
during  the  day.  English  growers  trap  an  allied  form  by  the  use 
of  dishes  with  high  smooth  sides  sunk  in  the  ground  and  baited 
with  meat. 

The  tarnished  plant  bug  is  discussed  on  page  84,  under  the 
head  of  Apple  Insects. 

Supplementary  List  for  Strawberries. — Several  other  insects 
also  attack  the  strawberry.  Page  references  are  given  for  those 
described  in  this  book. 

False  chinch-bug  Stalk  borer,  p.  256 

Glassy  cut-worm  Sulfur  brown  tortrix 

Greasy  cut-worm  Thread-bearing  span  worm 

Imbricated  snout  beetle  Wavy-striped  flea  beetle 

Oblique- banded  leaf-roller,  p.  96  Wire  worm,  p.  206 
Rusty-brown  tortrix 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 

Attacking  the  Roots  or  Canes. 

The  Blackberry  Crown-borer  or  Raspberry  Root-borer. — This 
is  a  clear-winged  moth  (Bembecina  marginata  Harris),  shown  in 
figure  157. 

Life  History  and  Habits. — The  adult  moth  deposits  its  eggs  in 
midsummer  on  the  leaves.  These  eggs  are  deep  brownish  red  in 
color.  Each  female  lays  about  one  hundred  and  forty.  The  young, 


RED-NECKED  CANE-BORER 


139 


white,  grub-like  larvse  crawl  down  the  stems  and  bore  under  the 
bark,  eating  into  the  pith.  They  feed  downward  in  the  pith  during 
the  fall,  passing  the  winter  in  the  roots.  The  next  spring  finds 
them  working  upward  in  other  canes.  When  full  grown  they  eat 
nearly  through  the  stem  walls  a  few  inches  above  the  ground  level 
and  there  change  to  the  pupal  stage.  At  this  time  they  are  pale 
yellow  with  brown  heads. 

Before  the  adult  emerges,  the  chrysalis  pushes  itself  part  way 
through  the  unbroken  skin  of  the  cane,  and  when  the  adult  escapes 
the  chrysalis's  skin  remains  in  the  opening. 

Injury.  —  These  injurious  insects  may  entirely  girdle  a  stem  at 
the  ground.  They  are  particularly  destructive  in  that,  in  the 
spring,  they  abandon  the  old  wood  and  at- 
tack the  new.  Plants  attacked  generally 
make  a  poor  growth  and  may  die  if  the 
roots  have  been  badly  affected.  Infestation 
may  come  from  wild  canes  in  the  vicinity. 

Control.  —  Infested  canes  should  be 
pulled  up  or  cut  off  below  the  work  of  the 
borer  and  destroyed  by  burning.  Or  the 
borer  should  be  cut  out  as  soon  as  its  work 
is  observed.  The  various  pests  attacking 
canes  may  all  be  controlled,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, by  a  judicious  pruning  and  cutting 
out  every  spring.  In  the  middle  and  south- 
ern states,  blackberry  canes  may  be  en- 
tirely  mowed  down  after  the  crop  is  har-  borer- 
vested.  The  canes  are  to  be  burned  immediately.  Young  shoots 
will  be  sent  up  and  become  mature  before  fall. 

The  Raspberry  Cane-borer  (Oberea  bimaculata  Oliv.).  —  The 
tips  of  young  shoots  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  sometimes 
wither  and  die,  due  to  the  attack  of  this  pest,  which  tunnels  through 
the  center  of  the  canes. 

The  adult  is  a  slender,  dark  beetle  with  a  yellow  ring  back  of 
the  head,  and  with  long  antennae  or  feelers.  The  larva,  when  full 
grown,  is  one  inch  long,  dull  yellow,  with  a  small  brown  head. 
Two  years  are  required  to  complete  the  life  cycle. 

Control.  —  Withered  tips  should  be  cut  off  below  the  point  of 
girdling  and  burned  as  soon  as  cut.  This  pruning  should  be  done 
before  the  larvae  go  into  the  crown  off  the  plant  to  hibernate. 

The  Red-necked  Cane-borer.  —  Both  blackberries  and  rasp- 


"•  male;  6-  female- 


140       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

berries  are  attacked  by  this  elongated,  flattened,  bronze-colored 
beetle  (Agrilus  ruficollis  Fab.).  It  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch 
long.  The  eggs  are  deposited  near  the  ground  in  the  axil  of  the 
leaf  stalk.  The  young  grub  eats  into  the  cane  at  this  point  and 
causes  the  formation  of  the  raspberry  gouty  gall  (Fig.  158).  As 
the  gall  enlarges,  the  surface  becomes  rough  and  cracks.  The 
larvae  tunnel  along  in  the  sap  wood  in  an  irregular  course.  When 
mature,  the  insect  is  pale  yellow  or  whitish,  with  a  very  small 
brownish  head  and  black  jaws.  It  is  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
long.  Several  larvae  may  be  found  hi  a  single  cane.  They  pupate 
in  the  pith;  and  emerge  as  adult  beetles  in  early  summer. 


FIQ.   158. — Red-necked  cane-borer,  adult,  larva  or  grub,  and  gall.     (After  Riley.) 

Control. — Galls  thus  formed  should  be  cut  out  and  burned  dur- 
ing the  whiter,  late  fall,  or  early  spring,  while  the  larvae  are  hiber- 
nating. All  wild  canes  in  the  neighborhood  should  be  destroyed 
and  clean  cultivation  practiced  as  far  as  possible.  Infested  canes  in 
the  berry  patch  should  be  cut  out  and  destroyed  before  summer. 

The  Snowy  Tree-cricket. — This  tree-cricket  (CEcanthus  niveus 
DeG.)  is  of  a  delicate  greenish  white  color,  lighter  than  the  allied 
form  0.  fasciatus,  from  which  it  is  also  distinguished  by  marks 
on  the  basal  joint  of  the  antennae  (Fig.  159).  It  is  quite  musical 
and  may  even  be  heard  occasionally  within  houses,  where  it  acci- 
dentally occurs. 


SNOWY  TREE-CRICKET 


141 


Life  History. — The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  late  fall,  gashes  being 
cut  in  the  stems  by  the  female  for  this  purpose  (Fig.  160).  The 
canes  are  thus  weakened,  breaking  down  tinder  the  weight  of 
snow  or  by  the  influence  of  the  wind.  The  eggs  hatch  in  late  spring. 
Figure  161  illustrates  interesting  features  in  connection  with  the 
life  history  of  tree  crickets.  Figure  162  gives  a  clear  idea  of  the 
different  stages  in  the  hatching. 

Habits. — These  insects,  while  harm- 
ful, should  be  credited  with  doing  a  large 
amount  of  good,  in  that  they  feed  upon 
plant  lice  and  other  insects  and  rarely 
nibble  the  foliage,  either  in  the  adult 


FIG.  159. — A  snowy  tree-cricket,  male  and 
female.     (Lugger.) 


Fio.  160. — Eggs  of  a  snowy  tree-cricket: 
a,  twig  showing  punctures;  b,  twig  split  open 
to  show  eggs;  c,  egg  and  cap,  enlarged. 
(After  Riley.) 


or  nymph  stages.  In  the  South  the  insect  has  two  broods  a  year. 
As  intimated  above,  the  only  damage  by  this  insect  is  that  caused 
by  cutting  gashes  for  the  eggs.  A  long,  ragged  wound  in  the  cane 
marks  the  point  of  egg-laying,  and  if  this  rough  surface  is  cut 
away  a  series  of  longitudinal  punctures  will  be  found.  Each  punc- 
ture extends  to  the  pith,  and  an  egg  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
each.  Infected  canes,  in  many  cases,  if  not  broken  down  during 
the  winter,  fail  to  put  out  leaves  in  the  spring. 

For  a  most  excellent  account  of  tree-crickets  the  reader  is 
urged  to  see  Bulletin  388  of  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Station, 


142       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 


FIG.  161. — Snowy  tree  cricket.     1.  Female  feeding  on  thoracic  gland  of  male  at  time  of 
mating;  2.  female  ovipositing.     (Parrott  and  Fulton,  Geneva  Bull.,  388.) 


RED  SPIDER 


143 


Control. — Examine  canes  as  soon  as  the  foliage  starts,  at  which 
e  the  injured  ones  may  be  easily  detected.  These  should  be 
t  out  and  burned.  If  the  damage  is  slight,  the  work  of  this 

insect  may  be  ignored,  yet,  if  neglected,  it  may  become  injurious 

on  account  of  excessive  numbers. 


FIG 


162. — Hatching  of  a  tree  cricket:  A,  position  of   embryo  in   egg;    B,    C,    D,    E,    suc- 
cessive stages  in  emergence  of  nymph.     (Parrott  and  Fulton,  Geneva  Bull.,  388.) 


Attacking  the  Leaves. 

The  Raspberry  Saw-fly. — The  adult  of  this  insect  is  a  four- 
winged  fly  (Monophadnus  rubi  Harris).  It  deposits  its  eggs  near 
the  veins  of  the  leaves  and  beneath  the  epidermal  layer.  The 
body  of  the  larva  is  nearly  white  and  thickly  covered  with  trans- 
verse rows  of  white  spines.  The  head  is  greenish  white,  with  a 
black  eye-spot  on  each  side.  After  feeding  upon  the  leaves  until 
late  in  the  spring,  the  larvae  become  full  grown  and  enter  the 
ground  to  form  pupal  cases.  They  emerge  as  adults  early  the 
following  spring. 

Control. — Spray  or  dust  with  white  hellebore,  using  one  ounce 
hellebore  to  one  gallon  of  water. 

The  Red  Spider. — This  is  not  an  insect,  but  a  mite  (Tetrany- 
chus  bimaculatus  Harvey),  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  adult 
has  eight  legs,  but  the  immature  form  has  only  six  legs.  It  often 


144       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

severely  injures  the  productiveness  of  small  fruits.  The  colorless 
eggs  are  laid  in  the  spring  on  the  under  surface  of  leaves  where 
the  mites  feed  by  sucking  the  juices.  These  mites  are  very  small 
and  are  barely  visible  to  an  ordinary  observer.  The  adults  leave 
the  plants  in  late  summer  and  early  fall  and  hibernate  in  the 
ground. 

The  injury,  however,  is  very  evident,  for  the  affected  leaves 
become  yellowish  and  shriveled,  finally  drying  up  completely. 

Control. — Spray  the  under  sides  of  leaves  with  sulfur  and 
water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  flowers  of  sulfur  to  three 
gallons  of  water.  To  make  the  sulfur  mix  easily  with  the  water, 
add  one  ounce  soap  to  six  gallons  of  water.  A  forceful  spraying 
with  a  garden  hose  is  frequently  helpful.  A  cheap  flour  paste  is 
also  recommended.  Use  one  pound  of  flour  to  a  gallon  of  water 
for  a  stock  solution.  Mix  the  batter  first,  avoiding  lumps,  and  then 
dilute  to  the  above  proportions.  In  preparing  the  spray,  add  one 
part  of  the  stock  solution  to  ten  parts  of  water. 

The  Long-horned  Prominent  (Schizura  ipomoece  Doubl.).— 
Another  name  of  this  larva  is  the  dingy  cut-worm.  The  cater- 
pillars of  this  species  vary  considerably.  They  are  usually  green, 
speckled  with  purple.  Two  rusty,  wart-like  projections  occur  on 
the  top  of  segments  four  and  eleven.  Caterpillars  feed  upon  oak, 
maple,  birch,  raspberry,  and  other  plants,  besides  the  blackberry. 
When  the  caterpillar  is  full  grown  it  makes  an  earthen  cocoon 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in  which  it  passes  the  whiter. 
The  moths  emerge  in  the  spring. 

The  adult  moth  (Fig.  163)  is  purplish  gray,  tinged  with  greenish 
at  base  and  along  the  front  edge  of  the  fore-wings.  The  hind- 
wings  are  whitish  in  the  male  and  grayish  in  the  female.  The 
expanse  of  the  wings  is  a  little  more  than  one  inch. 

Control. — As  stated  elsewhere,  any  arsenical  spray  will  kill  a 
leaf -eat  ing  insect.  Poison  baits  are  also  recommended.  Of  the 
arsenical  sprays,  arsenate  of  lead  is  repeatedly  stated  as  safer 
than  Paris  green  and  has  practically  replaced  the  latter. 

Attacking  the  Fruit  of  Blackberries  and  Raspberries. 

The  Raspberry  Fruit  Worm  (Byturus  unicolor  Say). — This  is 
a  small  white  "worm"  slightly  tapering  at  each  end  and  nearly 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  when  full  grown. 

Injury. — It  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  raspberry  and  blackberry, 
and  afterward  locates  inside  the  cup  of  the  berry  or  on  the  recep- 


IMPORTED  CURRANT  BORER 


145 


tacle  on  which  the  berry  is  borne.  Frequently,  it  is  consumed 
with  the  berries  at  table. 

The  adult  is  a  reddish-yellow  beetle  (Fig.  164)  about  three- 
twentieths  of  an  inch  long,  the  female  laying  her  eggs  in  or  on  the 
berry. 

Control. — Spray  heavily  with  arsenate  of  lead,  just  before  the 
emergence  or  at  the  first  appearance  of  the  beetles.  Use  six  to 
seven  pounds  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water.  This  will  naturally 
cut  down  the  number  of  adults.  Thorough  cultivation  late  in  the 
fall,  close  up  to  the  bushes,  is  also  advised,  since  this  tends  to  de- 
stroy the  pupae  or  expose  them  to  the  extreme  winter  weather 
and  to  the  attacks  of  enemies. 


FIG.  163. — Moth  of  the  long-horned 
prominent.     (Lugger.) 


FIG.  164. — The  raspberry  byturus. 
Lower  figure,  natural  size. 


Supplementary  List  for  Raspberry  and  Blackberry. — A  few 

additional  bisects  which  attack  raspberries  and  blackberries  are 
here  listed.    Those  described  are  referred  to  by  page  numbers. 


Apple-leaf  hopper,  p.  83 
Blackberry  flea-louse 
Blackberry-leaf  miner 
Blackberry  psylla 
Eye-spotted  bud-moth,  p.  86 
Oblique-banded  leaf  roller,  p.  96 


Orange-striped  oak  worm 
Raspberry-leaf  roller 
Raspberry  geometer 
Stalk  borer,  p.  256 
Strawberry  weevil,  p.  137 
Tarnished  plant-bug,  p.  84 


INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO    CURRANTS   AND    GOOSEBERRIES 

Attacking  the  Canes. 

The  Imported  Currant-borer. — The  adult  of  this  borer  (Sesia 
tipuliformis  Linn.)  is  a  clear-winged,  wasp-like  moth  (Fig.  165). 
It  was  introduced  from  Europe  about  1820,  and  is  now  widely 
distributed  and  destructive  over  practically  all  North  America. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  female  is  black,  with 
three  bands  of  yellow  on  the  abdomen;  the  male  is  four-banded. 
These  bisects  appear  hi  early  summer,  at  which  time  eggs  are  laid 
10 


146       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

on  the  bark.  The  caterpillar,  on  hatching,  enters  the  stem  and 
tunnels  up  and  down  the  canes.  This  causes  a  yellowing  of  the 
leaves  and  death  of  the  canes.  They  pass  the  winter,  full  grown, 
in  the  stem.  At  this  time  they  are  one-half  of  an  inch  long,  with 
brown  head.  In  the  spring  they  transform  to  pupae  just  beneath 
the  bark,  and  soon  emerge,  leaving  the  empty  skins  of  the  pupae 
projecting  from  the  bark. 

Control. — Infested  canes  are  always  easily  detected  and  should 
be  cut  off  below  the  injured  portion  and  destroyed  by  burning; 
this  kills  the  borers  within.  Since  the  bearing  qualities  of 
currant  and  gooseberry  are  improved  by  cutting  out  old  canes, 


FIG.   165. — The  currant  borer;  larva,  adult,  and  pupal  case  on  left.     (Lugger.) 

this  yearly  practice  on  the  part  of  the  growers  would  materially 
help  to  control  this  pest.  These  old  canes  should  always  be 
burned,  even  when  borers  have  not  been  noticed. 

Attacking  the  Leaf. 

The  Imported  Currant  Worm. — This  insect  is  a  saw-fly  (Ptero- 
nus  ribesii  Scop.).  The  adult  female  is  one-third  of  an  inch  long, 
light  yellowish  in  color,  marked  with  black.  The  male  is  smaller 
than  the  female  and  somewhat  darker. 

The  Eggs  and  Larvae. — Eggs  are  glued  to  the  main  ribs  of  the 
leaf,  not  inserted  in  pockets  as  is  usual  with  saw-flies.  They  hatch 
in  four  to  ten  days  and  at  first  the  larvae  are  whitish,  with  dark  spots 
on  each  side.  As  soon  as  the  caterpillars  begin  to  feed,  this  color 


IMPORTED  CURRANT  WORM  147 

changes  to  green.  After  the  first  moult  the  head  becomes  black 
and  the  black  spots  on  the  side  of  the  body  become  more  promi- 
nent. The  full-grown  caterpillar  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long 
(Fig.  166) .  When  full  grown  it  descends  to  the  ground,  and  spins 
a  small,  oval  cocoon  of  a  brownish  silk  among  the  leaves  or  rubbish, 
or  even  below  the  ground. 

Two  Broods. — The  adults  emerge  from  these  cocoons  late  in 
June  or  July,  mate,  and  produce  a  second  brood.    The  adults  of 


FKJ.    1()(5. — The  imported  currant  worm:  a,  a,  male  and  female  saw  fly;  b,  b,  b,  larvse  of  differ- 
ent sizes;  c,  pupa;  d,  cocoon;  e,  eggs.     (Lugger.) 

this  latter  brood  do  not  emerge  until  the  following  season.  Since 
the  two  broods  overlap,  larvse  of  all  stages  may  be  found 
during  the  summer. 

Injury. — These,  perhaps,  are  the  most  destructive  of  the  cur- 
rant pests.  This  is  particularly  so  since  they  come  in  the  busy 
part  of  the  year  and  their  depredations  are  not  noticed  until  the 
currant  or  gooseberry  bush  is  nearly  stripped  of  leaves. 

Control. — If  the  worms  are  observed  when  they  first  begin  to 
feed,  control  is  easy.  Simply  dust  the  leaves  with  dry,  white  helle- 
bore when  they  are  moist  with  dew.  Or  spray  the  foliage  with  the 


148       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

same  material,  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  of  hellebore  to  three  gallons 
of  water.  Before  the  fruit  is  set,  and  also  after  it  is  picked,  arsenate 
of  lead  is  cheaper  and  more  effective  as  a  spray  material. 

The  Native  Currant  Worm. — The  greenish  caterpillars  of  this 
saw-fly  (Pristophora  gossularice  Walsh)  appear  on  currant  and 
gooseberry  leaves  in  the  spring.  They  feed  on  the  leaves  until 
full  grown  and  pupate  among  the  twigs.  The  adults  are  black, 
four-winged  flies.  The  females  deposit  their  eggs  under  the 
epidermis  of  the  leaves.  There  are  two  broods  a  year. 

The  control  is  the  same  as  for  the  imported  currant  worm. 

The  Four-lined  Leaf-bug. — This  bug  (Pcecilocapsus  lineatus 
Fabr.)  is  widely  distributed  in  North  America.  Its  upper  surface 


FIG.   167. — The  four-lined  leaf-bug;  a,  adult;  6  and  c,  nymphs.     (After  Slingerland.) 

is  green  or  yellowish,  with  four  black  stripes.  The  tips  of  the 
wing-covers  are  black.  The  body  is  a  bright  orange  yellow 
(Fig.  167).  The  nymph,  when  newly  hatched,  is  one-twentieth 
of  an  inch  long;  bright  red,  marked  with  blackish  spots. 
When  full  grown  this  nymph  is  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long.  Egg  •. 
hatch  in  late  spring.  The  nymphs  require  from  seventeen 
to  twenty  days  to  complete  their  growth. 

Injury. — This  insect  preys  upon  a  long  list  of  plants,  but  is 
particularly  injurious  to  currant  and  gooseberry.  Attacked  leaves 
appear  spotted,  turn  brown,  curl  up,  become  brittle,  and  are  torn 
and  broken  by  the  wind.  Shoots  bearing  these  leaves  are  checked 
in  growth  and  frequently  droop  and  die.  Dahlias  and  roses  are 
often  injured;  in  fact,  it  is  a  marked  enemy  of  these  two  plants. 


CURRANT  PLANT  LOUSE  149 

Control. — The  nymphs  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion.  But  the  tobacco  extracts  are  particularly  recommended. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  adults  are  not  susceptible  to  treatment. 
Both  nymphs  and  adults  will  drop  when  disturbed. 

The  Yellow-bear  Caterpillar  is  injurious  to  berries,  currants 
and  gooseberries  as  well  as  to  many  other  plants.  See  the  discus- 
sion on  page  160,  under  Grape  Insects. 

The  Currant  Plant-louse. — This  aphid  (Myzus  ribis  Linn.) 
sucks  the  juices  from  the  leaves  of  the  currant,  causing  them 


«  r 


• .JBBHHI 

FIG.  168. — Currant  leaves  infested  with  lire.     (Lugger.) 

to  curl  and  form  incomplete  galls,  inside  of  which  the  lice 
stay.  Their  presence  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  is  indicated 
by  the  striking  red  color  on  the  upper  surface  (Fig.  168). 
In  midsummer  they  migrate  to  some  other  plants  for  food 
or  become  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  by  parasites  and  pre- 
daceous  insects. 

Description. — The  winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage,  like  many 
other  aphids,  these  eggs  hatching  when  the  foliage  appears.  The 
wingless  females  are  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  long;  green  or  yellowish 
green,  mottled  with  darker  shades.  The  eyes  are  bright  red.  The 
winged  females  are  slightly  larger  than  the  others. 


150       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

Control. — When  remedial  measures  are  called  for,  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves  should  be  sprayed  with  whale  oil  soap 
or  other  strong  soap.  Use  one  pound  to  six  gallons  of  water.  Or 
spray  with  tobacco  extracts.  The  spraying  must  be  done  before 
the  foliage  becomes  badly  curled,  or  the  insects  will  not  be  hit. 
Picking  off  curled  leaves  by  hand  and  destroying  them  will  keep 
the  pests  somewhat  in  check. 

The  Spiny  Currant  Caterpillar  (Polygonia  comma  Harr.). — The 
caterpillars,  when  full  grown,  are  about  one  and  one-fourth  inches 
long.  They  vary  from  light  brown  to  greenish  yellow  in  color  and 
are  marked  with  black  and  yellow  lines.  Upon  the  body  are 
numerous  branched  spines,  varying  in  color  from  dark  brown  to  a 
yellow.  The  spines  are  frequently  tipped  with  black. 

The  adult  insect  is  the  common  and  strikingly  handsome  butter- 
fly which  hibernates  in  some  sheltered  spot  and  is  frequently  seen 
in  warm  places  very  early  in  the  spring.  The  illustration  (Fig. 
169)  serves  to  give  a  good  idea  of  this  species.  The  wings  are  quite 
irregular  in  outline,  and  there  are  many  projecting  points  and 
notches.  The  surfaces  of  all  four  wings  are  reddish  brown,  bor- 
dered on  the  outer  edge  with  darker  brown.  The  color  of  the  hind- 
wings  varies  considerably  in  intensity,  and  more  so  on  the  under 
side,  which  is  usually  dark  brown,  with  many  grayish  lines  and 
streaks.  The  butterfly  may  always  be  recognized  by  a  plainly 
marked  "C"  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  hind-wing  of  a  metallic 
silvery  color.  One's  imagination  might  picture  this  mark  as  a 
comma. 

Life  Cycle. — Eggs  are  laid  singly  on  the  leaves  of  currant  and 
gooseberry,  and  here  the  solitary  larvae  are  found.  When  full 
grown  the  caterpillar  seeks  a  secluded  spot  to  change  to  pupa  or 
chrysalis.  The  chrysalis  is  frequently  seen  hanging  from  leaf  or 
twig.  It  is  brown  in  color.  In  ten  days,  from  this  formation,  the 
butterfly  emerges. 

There  are  generally  two  generations  of  caterpillars — one  in 
late  spring  and  another  one  in  late  summer  or  early  fall. 

Injury. — The  caterpillar  is  a  general  feeder,  attacking  not  only 
wild  and  cultivated  currants  and  gooseberries,  which  it  prefers, 
but  is  also  fond  of  elm,  hop,  nettle,  basswood,  and  various  other 
growths. 

Control. — Arsenical  sprays  or  white  hellebores  are  effective, 
if  any  remedy  is  needed.  The  hellebore  is  preferable  if  the  fruit 
is  ripe  or  nearly  so.  Recourse  may  also  be  had  to  hand-picking. 


RED  SPIDER 


151 


FIG.  169. — Spiny   currant   caterpillar  and   two  butterflies. 
(Lugger.) 

The  red  spider  is  a  small  mite  seriously  injuring  many 
kinds  of  plants.  For  discussions  and  treatment,  see  pages  215, 
221.  See  also  greenhouse  pests. 


152       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

Attacking  the  Fruit. 

The  Currant  Fruit  Fly. — This  is  a  pale  yellowish  brown  fly 
(Epochra  canadensis  Loew.)  of  medium  size,  with  dark  bands  on 
the  vvings.  It  deposits  eggs  in  the  skin  of  the  half-grown  fruit. 
The  young  maggots  eat  into  the  seeds,  causing  the  berries  to  be- 
come discolored,  to  turn  red  prematurely,  and  fall  to  the  ground. 
The  full-grown  maggots  emerge  from  the  fruit,  pupating  in  the 
ground,  and  come  forth  as  adults  the  following  spring. 

Control. — Spraying  is  not  effective  for  this  insect.  Where 
practicable,  the  ground  should  be  worked  early  in  the  spring  and 
late  in  the  fall.  If  the  bushes  are  not  too  numerous,  the  injured 
fruit  might  possibly  be  removed  and  destroyed.  Poultry  might 

be  allowed  to  run  among  the 
bushes  early  in  the  fall  and  would 
scratch  up  and  eat  many  insects 
in  the  hibernating  stage. 

The  Gooseberry  Fruit  Worm 
(Zophodia  grossularice  Pack.). — 
These  worms  cause  fruit  of  both 
gooseberry  and  currant  to  become 
discolored  and  ripen  prematurely. 

-The  gooseberry  fruit  worm.         jf     ^     ^    attacked     when     quite 

young,  the  fruit  becomes  whitish  and  withers.  Currants  are  not, 
ordinarily,  large  enough  to  hold  this  larva  and  therefore  they  are 
drawn  together  in  clusters  and  the  worm  lives  within  the  web- 
covered  enclosure.  Figure  171  gives  a  very  good  idea  of  the  work 
of  this  pest  of  currant  and  gooseberry. 

Life  History. — This  pest  (Fig.  170)  is  the  young  of  a  pale-gray 
moth,  the  wings  of  which  expand  one  inch.  The  adult  appears 
early  in  the  spring,  depositing  eggs  on  the  young  currants  or  goose- 
berries shortly  after  the  fruit  is  set.  It  changes  to  a  pupa  in  the 
ground,  spinning  silken  cocoons  among  the  rubbish  for  the  winter, 
emerging  the  following  spring. 

Control. — The  same  remedies  employed  against  the  currant 
fruit  fly  are  applicable  to  this  pest. 

Supplementary  List  for  Currant  and  Gooseberry. — The  fol- 
lowing insects  are  also  found  attacking  currants  and  gooseberries. 
The  pages  cited  give  full  discussions  of  these. 

Apple-leaf  hopper,  p.  83  Saddle-backed  caterpillar 

Cottony  maple  scale,  p.  287  San  Jose  scale,  p.  70 

Currant  scale  "Stink"  bugs 

lo  emperor  moth,  p.  128  Tarnished  plant  bug,  p.  84 

Oblique-banded  leaf  roller,  p.  96  Well-marked  cut-worm  moth,  p.  97 


IOOSEB] 


)RM 


154        INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

INSECTS   INJURIOUS   TO   THE   GRAPE 

Attacking  Roots  and  Vines. 

The  Grape  Root  Worm  (Fidia  viticida  Walsh) . — This  is  one  of 
the  most  serious  pests  of  the  grape  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Grubs,  by  destroying  the  roots,  may  completely  ruin  a 
vineyard  (Fig.  172). 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  of  this  grub  is  a  small 
brownish  beetle  with  hairy  coat.  The  beetles  emerge  during  the 
summer,  beginning  at  once  to  feed,  eating  chain-like  holes  in  the 


FIG.  172. — Different  stages  of  grape  root  worm.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

grape  leaves,  apparently  preferring  young  plants.  They  have  also 
been  reported  eating  the  skin  from  the  fruit.  When  disturbed, 
they  endeavor  to  conceal  themselves. 

The  female  deposits  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  eggs  during  the 
season,  evidently  at  three  different  periods,  from  twenty  to  forty 
being  laid  at  one  time.  These  eggs  are  yellow  and  are  placed  in 
clusters  under  the  loose  bark  or  hi  crevices  on  the  canes.  They 
hatch  in  from  eight  to  ten  days.  The  grubs,  upon  hatching,  fall 
to  the  ground,  entering  the  soil,  and  make  their  way  to  roots  where 


GRAPE  CANE-BORER  155 

they  feed.  They  are,  for  the  most  part,  full  grown  before  winter, 
reaching  a  length  of  about  one-half  inch.  They  come  to  the  surface 
in  spring,  form  earthen  cells,  pupate,  and  emerge  as  adults  a  few 
weeks  later. 

Control. — Cultivate  early  to  destroy  the  pupal  cells.  Spray 
for  the  adult  with  arsenate  of  lead.  Use  three  pounds  of  lead 
arsenate  in  fifty  gallons  of  water.  Add  one  gallon  of  molasses  or 
cheap  syrup  to  sweeten  the  mixture.  The  adult  beetles  may  ba 
jarred  from  the  leaves  on  sheets  placed  beneath  the  vines. 

These  measures  may,  for  the  most  part,  also  be  recommended 
for  the  moth  known  as  the  grape-vine  root  worm. 

Attacking  the  Leaves  of  the  Grape. 

The  Grape-vine  Flea-beetle. — The  adult  of  this  insect  (Haltica 
chalybea  Illiger)  is  a  steel-blue  beetle  appearing  in  early  spring, 
feeding  on  the  first-appearing  buds.  It  is  a  voracious  eater,  and 
is  most  active  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  When  disturbed,  it 
drops  to  the  ground. 

Life  History. — Eggs,  according  to  Slingerland,  are  laid  side  by 
side,  tucked  into  cracks  in  the  bark,  some  in  cavities  eaten  into  the 
buds.  They  hatch  about  the  time  the  young  leaves  are  expanding. 
The  small,  dark  brown  grubs  feed  on  the  young  leaves,  eating 
irregular  holes  from  the  upper  side.  They  become  full  grown  after 
several  moults,  which  require  from  three  to  four  weeks.  They 
then  fall  from  the  leaves  and  enter  the  ground  about  one  inch, 
forming  &  smooth  cavity  in  which  they  pupate.  They  remain  in 
the  pupal  stage  about  one  or  two  weeks,  appearing  as  adults  in 
midsummer,  at  which  time  they  feed  to  some  extent  on  grape 
leaves.  The  winter  is  passed  under  'any  protecting  litter.  Figure 
173  illustrates  this  insect. 

Control. — Keep  the  vineyards  free  from  rubbish  in  the  winter. 
As  soon  as  the  work  of  the  beetles  is  noticed  on  the  buds,  spray 
with  arsenate  of  lead.  Use  six  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
Vineyards  regularly  sprayed  with  arsenicals  and  well  cultivated 
show  but  little  injury  from  this  insect.  Beetles  may  also  be  jarred 
on  sheets  or  into  large  pans  and  then  killed. 

Grape  Cane-borer. — This  widely  distributed  insect  (Schisto- 
cerus  hamatus  Fab.)  is  also  known  to  attack  the  twigs  of  apple. 
It  was  described  by  Say  and  named  Amphicerus  bicaudatus,  as 
a  distinct  insect,  but  these  are  now  shown  to  be  identical.  It 
tunnels  and  kills  young  shoots  of  grapes  in  the  spring.  It  also 
works  in  peach  and  pear,  and  to  some  extent  in  shade  trees. 


156       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

Life  History. — The  eggs  are  probably  laid  in  the  spring.  The 
full-grown  grub  transforms  to  a  pupa  within  the  burrow,  the  adult 
escaping  by  gnawing  through  the  walls  of  its  tunnel.  The  beetle 
(Fig.  174)  is  dark  brown,  not  quite  one-half  of  an  inch  long,  with  a 
head  drawn  under  and  below  the  thorax  (Fig.  174).  It  may  pass 
the  winter  in  the  adult  stage  within  the  burrow,  emerging  in  the 
spring,  or  may  issue  from  the  twigs  of  the  grape  and  hibernate  in 
a  tunnel  which  it  makes  in  fruit  trees. 

Control. — One  should  cut  out  and  burn  in  spring  all  diseased 
and  dying  twigs.  By  fall  pruning  of  the  grape,  and  burning  of  all 
cuttings,  affected  vines  may  be  relieved. 


FIG.   173. — The  grape-vine  flea-beetle,   different  stages 

(U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


Hair  lines 


The  Rose  Chafer  (Macrodactylus  subspinosus  Fab.). — This 
small  beetle  appears  at  times  in  swarms  and  attacks  the  grapes 
about  blossoming  time.  It  is  awkward-appearing,  yellowish  and 
brownish,  and  more  or  less  hairy.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the 
ground  during  spring  and  early  summer.  The  larvae  (Fig.  175) 
look  somewhat  like  small  white  grubs.  They  feed  on  grasses;  live 
over  winter  as  larvae;  turn  into  pupae  in  the  spring,  and  soon 
appear  as  adults. 

A  Toxic  Principle. — This  beetle  is  interesting  in  that  for  a  long 
time  it  was  supposed  that  the  death  of  fowls  after  eating  them  was 


GRAPE-VINE  PHYLLOXERA 


157 


due  to  spiny  projections  on  the  legs  of  the  insect.  It  has 
now  been  demonstrated  that  the  death  of  fowls  and  other  animals, 
including  trout,  feeding  upon  these  beetles,  is  not  due  to  mechanical 
irritation,  but  to  a  toxic  principle  existing  in  the  beetle. 

Control. — Poisons  are  not  generally  satisfactory,  but  the  fol- 
lowing spray  is  quite  effective.  Use  ten  pounds  arsenate  of  lead, 
twenty-five  pounds  cheap  molasses  or  confectioners'  glucose  or 


FIG.   174. — Different  stages  of  the  grape  cane-borer  or  apple  twig-borer  and  its  work. 

(U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

cheap  syrup,  and  one  hundred  gallons  of  water.  Jarring  adults 
into  a  large  sheet  may  greatly  aid  in  destroying  them. 

The  Grape-vine  Phylloxera. — This  aphid  or  plant  louse  (Phyl- 
loxera vastatrix  Planch.)  was  first  discovered  in  eastern  United 
States  on  wild  grapes  and  was  introduced  into  France  early  in 
the  1860's.  There  it  became  a  most  serious  enemy  to  grape-raising. 
It  exists  in  several  forms  and  is  found  on  both  roots  and  leaves. 

The  female  is  plump,  orange  yellow,  wingless,  and  fills  the  gall 
in  which  she  lives  with  her  eggs  (Fig.  176).  The  female  root  form 


158       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

is  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  long;  light  greenish  yellow  in  summer, 
and  darker  in  winter.  When  they  are  numerous  on  the  roots  there 
is  an  appearance  as  if  the  roots  were  dusted  with  mustard. 

Life  History. — There  are  really  four  forms  to  be  observed  in 
the  life  history  of  this  plant  louse:  (1)  the  leaf -gall  form;  (2)  the 
root  form,  which  is  the  most  destructive;  (3)  the  winged  or  coloniz- 
ing form;  and  (4)  the  sexual  form.  Winter  eggs  are  deposited  in 
the  fall  on  bark  or  wood.  They  hatch  in  the  spring,  and  the 


FIG.   175. — The  rose-chafer  or  rose-bug;  different  stages,  details  of  structure  and  injury  to 
grape  leaf.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

young,  settling  on  the  leaves,  cause  galls  on  the  lower  side.  These 
are  all  females,  which  die  after  laying  their  eggs.  In  about  eight 
days  these  eggs  hatch  into  females  like  the  parent,  which  migrate 
and  form  new  galls.  There  may  be  six  or  seven  generations  during 
the  season.  Many  migrate  to  roots  during  the  spring  and  summer, 
and  they  all  seek  the  roots  at  the  approach  of  winter.  The  last 
generation  takes  no  food,  and  each  female  lays  one  egg,  which 
passes  through  the  winter. 

The  next  spring  the  roots  are  attacked  and  the  females  multiply 


GRAPE-VINE  P^VLLOXERA 


159 


upon  them  also.  Some  at  this  time  develop  into  winged  females, 
which  escape  from  the  soil  and  fly  to  neighboring  vines  and  lay 
eggs  which  hatch  into  males  and  females.  This  is  the  only  sexual 
generation  in  the  whole  life  cycle. 

Injury. — This  is  a  serious  pest  of  the  grape,  as  above  intimated. 
The  galls  on  the  roots  are  frequently  accompanied  by  a  rotting  of 
the  plant  tissue.  It  is  not  so  destructive,  by  any  means,  in  America 
as  in  Europe.  Most  varieties  of  grapes  grown  here  are  resistant, 
yet  in  California  it  is  regarded  as  an  important  pest  of  the  grape. 

Control. — The  general  recommendations  are  to  use  resistant 
vines.  There  is  a  marked  variation  in  the  resistance  of  different 


ft 


FIG.    176. — The  grape-vine  phylloxera,  leaf  form.     (Alter  Marlatt,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

species  and  varieties.  Not  all  varieties  can  be  used  as  stock 
for  desired  scions.  As  is  well  known,  the  wild  grape  of  America 
makes  good  stock  for  roots. 

On  deep  loose  soils  carbon  bisulfid  may  be  used  against  the 
root  form,  but  not  on  clay  nor  on  dry,  rocky  hillsides.  This  treat- 
ment is  hardly  practical  and  has  met  with  only  indifferent  success. 
Treatment  with  carbon  bisulfid  is  rather  expensive,  costing  from 
$15  to  $25  per  acre.  It  is  applied  by  pouring  one-half  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  ounce  of  the  liquid  into  holes  a  foot  deep.  The  holes 
are  made  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart,  and  not  nearer 
than  one  foot  to  the  vine. 


160       INSECT  PESTS  OF  JERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

Submersion  of  the  roots  in  water,  if  the  latter  is  available,  is 
effective.  It  is  suggested  that,  where  possible,  an  affected  vineyard 
be  flooded  with  six  inches  of  water  for  from  seven  to  ten  days,  as 
soon  as  the  vines  cease  growing  in  the  fall.  Infested  vines  are 
benefited  also  by  two  days'  flooding  in  midsummer,  but  are  injured 
by  any  more.  Vines  on  sandy  soil  are  rarely  injured  by  this  pest. 

The  Light-loving  Anomala. — Beetles  of  this  group  (Anomala 
lucicola  Fab.)  attack  leaves  of  grape  and  of  Virginia  creeper.  They 
are  yellowish  or  brown  beetles  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long. 
There  is  considerable  variation  in  color  and  markings  of  the  adult. 
The  larval  stage  is  spent  in  the  ground  as  a  white  grub,  feeding 
on  various  roots.  Another  somewhat  larger  form,  A.  marginata, 


FIG.   177. — The  yellow-bear  caterpillar,  moth,  and  pupa.      (After  Riley.) 

occurs  in  some  sections.  These  beetles  frequently  destroy  the 
leaves  of  the  grape. 

Control. — Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  four  pounds  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water,  when  there  is  no  fruit  on  the  vines. 

The  Yellow-bear  Caterpillar. — The  adult  moth  of  this  species 
(Diacrisia  virginica  Fab.)  is  often  called  "the  white  miller."  It 
is  of  a  white  color,  marked  with  a  few  dots.  The  expanse  of  wing 
is  about  one  and  three-fourth  inches. 

Description  and  Life  History. — There  are  two  generations — the 
second  brood  of  caterpillars  appearing  in  late  summer  or  early 
fall.  When  full  grown,  these  striking  caterpillars  are  two  inches 
long,  generally  yellowish,  but  the  colors  vary  from  yellow  to  brown 
in  the  same  brood  (Fig.  177). 

The  female  places  her  round,  yellow  eggs  in  clusters  on  the 


GRAPE-VINE  HOG  CATERPILLAR  161 

under  side  of  leaves.  These  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days  into  small, 
yellow  caterpillars,  which,  for  a  time  at  least,  are  gregarious,  and 
eat  only  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves.  Later  they  scatter  and  feed 
on  all  parts  of  the  leaf.  When  full  grown  the  hairy  covering  of  the 
body  is  worked  into  a  silken  cocoon  in  which  the  chestnut-browr. 
chrysalis  is  formed.  The  two  broods  intermingle  so  that  the  insect 
is  present,  in  one  form  or  another,  from  spring  to  autumn.  It  is 
a  common  and  rather  serious  pest  and  something  of  a  general 
feeder. 

Control. — When   in   moderate   quantities   it  may    be    hand- 
picked.    If  numerous,  use  arsenate  of  lead  spray  as  strong  as  four 


Fio.  178.— The  hog  caterpillar  of  the  grape.     (After  Riley.) 

pounds  to  fifty  gallons,  since  the  caterpillars  are  thoroughly 
resistant. 

The  Grape-vine  Hog  Caterpillar  (Ampelophagus  myron  Cram). 
—These  caterpillars  are  very  destructive  to  foliage  of  the  grape, 
and  are  also  said  to  bite  off  stems  of  unripe  grape  clusters,  causing 
them  to  fall. 

The  chrysalis  is  formed  in  clusters  of  leaves  which  are  bound 
together  with  a  silken  thread. 

The  adult  moth  has  long  and  narrow  wings,  expanding  two  and 
one-half  inches.  The  front  wings  are  olive  green,  crossed  by  bands 
of  greenish  gray.  The  hind-wings  are  dull  red,  shading  to  greenish 
gray  next  to  the  body. 

The  caterpillar  (Fig.  178)  is  two  inches  long,  green  in  color, 
11 


162       INSECT  PESTS  OP  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

covered  with  minute  yellow  tubercles  or  blue  dots.  There  are 
seven  oblique  yellow  spots  on  each  side  the  body,  margined  with 
green.  There  is  also  a  white  stripe  from  the  back  of  the  head  to 
horn  on  the  posterior  end,  on  each  side ;  a  series  of  seven  dots  along 
the  middle  line,  the  color  of  dots  varying  from  red  to  lilac  and  each 
dot  set  in  a  yellow  patch.  It  is  two-brooded,  and  pinkish  indi- 
viduals are  found  in  the  second  brood  of  caterpillars. 

Control. — These  conspicuous  caterpillars  are  not  numerous. 
Hand-picking  may  be  sufficient ;  but  spraying  with  arsenicals  may 
be  resorted  to  if  thought  necessary. 

The  White-lined  Sphinx. — This  large,  handsome  moth  (Deile- 
phila  lineata  Fab.)  may  be  seen  about  twilight,  hovering  before 
flowers  like  a  humming  bird. 

Description. — The  ground  color  of  the  fore-wings  is  a  rich 
greenish  olive,  with  a  pale  buff  stripe  along  the  middle  of  the  wings 
from  the  base  to  near  the  tip.  There  is  a  gray  band  on  the  margin 
of  the  fore-wings,  and  the  veins  are  margined  with  white.  The 
hind-wings  are  small,  crossed  by  a  wide,  rosy  band.  There  is  a 
line  of  white  on  each  side  of  the  body,  from  the  head  to  the  first 
abdominal  segment.  The  abdomen  is  olive,  with  white  and  black 
spots.  The  wing  expanse  is  about  three  and  one-half  inches 
(Fig.  179). 

The  caterpillars  vary  somewhat  in  color,  but  are  often  yellowish 
green,  with  a  row  of  prominent  spots  along  each  side.  The  breath- 
ing pores  on  each  side  are  margined  with  black  or  black  with  yellow 
edges. 

Life  History. — The  adult  moth  appears  in  the  spring  and  again 
in  the  fall,  the  insect  being  two-brooded.  The  caterpillars  may  be 
found  on  the  grape,  or  more  commonly,  perhaps,  on  turnip,  buck- 
wheat, and  frequently  on  apple.  When  the  caterpillar  is  mature, 
it  buries  itself  in  the  soil  in  a  smooth  cavity  and  changes  into  a 
light-brown  pupa.  Winter  is  passed  by  the  pupse  of  the  second 
brood. 

Control. — This  is  not  a  serious  pest,  but  the  larvae  are  voracious 
eaters  when  present.  Hand-picking  is  probably  as  practical  as 
any  method.  They  are  held  well  in  check  by  attacks  of  a  tachinid 
parasite. 

The  Grape-leaf  Skeletonizer  or  American  Procris. — The  cater- 
pillars of  this  moth  (Harrisina  americana  Guer.-Men.)  are  grega- 
rious, feeding  with  their  heads  all  toward  the  margin  of  the  leaf. 
They  are  black  and  yellow  in  color  and  six-tenths  of  an  inch  long 


GRAPE-LEAF  SKELETONIZER 


163 


when  full  grown.  When  their  growth  is  finished,  they  become 
yellow,  with  a  transverse  row  of  large  spots  on  each  segment,  and 
are  slightly  hairy. 

In  late  summer,  when  ready  to  transform,  they  disperse. 
Each  seeks  a  sheltered  spot,  where  a  tough,  oblong  cocoon  is  con- 
structed, in  which  the  caterpillar  changes  to  a  shiny  brown  pupa 
for  the  winter  season. 

The  adult  emerges  the  following  spring.    This  insect  has  proba- 


Fia.   179. — Two  sphinx  moths  which  are  enemies  to  grapes:  above,  Ampelophaya  my  run  a,ii«J 
pupa;  below,  Deilephila  lincata  and  larva.     (After  Lugger.) 

bly  two  broods  in  some  sections.  The  female  moth  is  about  one- 
half  inch  long.  It  is  bluish  to  greenish  black,  with  an  orange- 
colored  collar.  Its  flight  is  slow  and  unsteady.  Eggs  are  deposited 
on  the  outer  side  of  leaves. 

Injury. — The  caterpillars  eat  the  soft  tissues  of  the  foliage,  but 
not  the  veins.  As  they  grow,  the  smaller  veins  are  eaten,  leaving 
only  the  larger  ones  not  attacked.  This  insect  may  become  quite 
injurious  if  occurring  in  numbers  (Fig.  180). 

Control. — Hand-pick  the  leaves  on  which  colonies  are  feeding. 


164       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  as  a  spray  if  the  fruit  is  not  too  near 
the  ripening  stage. 

Grape-vine  Leaf-hoppers. — There  are  three  species  of  the 
genus  Typhlocyba.  Perhaps  the  most  important  is  T.  vitis  Harr. 
The  adults  of  these  three  species  of  leaf-hoppers  are  all  similar 
in  shape  and  general  appearance,  differing  in  minor  markings. 
T.  vulnerata  is  a  reddish-brown  insect,  marked  with  white  lines 


FIG.   180. — The  American  procris:  a,  caterpillar;  b,  pupa;  c,  cocoon;  d  and  e,  moths.    Below, 
a  colony  of  caterpillars  feeding.     (After  Kiley.) 

and  dots,  with  two  prominent  black  lines  at  the  margin  of  the 
upper  wings.  T.  comes  is  of  a  translucent  white  color,  marked 
with  red  lines  and  prominent  black  spots  at  tip  of  wings  and  two 
black  lines  at  the  margin.  These  nymphs  hatch  in  midsummer 
or  early  fall,  they  hibernate  as  adults,  and  in  spring  attack  the 
leaves  of  the  vines  as  soon  as  the  foliage  appears.  The  life  history 
as  well  as  the  occurrence  of  these  species  varies  in  different  parts 
of  the  country. 


GRAPE-VINE   LEAF-HOPPERS 


165 


Leaf-hoppers  are  regarded  as  among  the  most  destructive  of 
grape-vine  pests,  sucking  sap  from  the  leaves  and  thus  greatly 
weakening  the  vines.  A  party  in  California  has  estimated  his  loss 
on  one  thousand  acres  at  ten  thousand  dollars  in  one  year  (Fig.  181). 

Control. — Remove  all  rubbish  in  the  field  and  rake  or  lightly 
cultivate  the  ground.  The  nymphs  or  young,  being  all  on  the  under 


FIG.  181. — A  grape-vine  leaf-hopper,  different  stages.     (Lugger.) 

side  of  the  leaves  and  not  capable  of  flight,  may  be  sprayed  with 
whale  oil  soap  solution  or  the  resin  spray.  Use  one  pound  of  soap 
to  fifteen  gallons  of  water  in  the  former  case.  The  resin  spray  is 
made  by  adding  one  pound  of  resin  to  fifteen  gallons  of  hot  water 
and  enough  lye  or  potash  to  completely  dissolve  the  resin.  This 
generally  takes  one  pound  of  lye  to  eight  pounds  of  resin.  The 


16J       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

spraying  should  be  done  forcefully  from  below.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this  treatment  kills  only  those  insects  which  are  hit 
with  the  spray,  the  adults  escaping  by  flight. 


FIG.   182. — The  eight-spotted  forester.     (Lugger.) 

The  Eight-spotted  Forester  (Alypia  octomaculata  Fab.). — 
This  is  a  strikingly  handsome  moth  (Fig.  182),  with  a  wing  expanse 
of  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches.  It  is  bluish  black  in  color, 


EIGHT-SPOTTED  FORESTER 


167 


marked  with  eight  large  light  spots — two  spots  on  each  wing. 
Those  on  the  fore-wings  are  pale  yellow,  while  those  on  the  hind- 
wings  are  white  or  whitish. 

The  caterpillars  are  light  brown  in  color,  with  many  black 
lines  and  an  orange  band  across  each  segment.     The  head  and 


FIG.    183. — Larvae  of  eight-spotted  forester.      On  black  ground,  a  parasitized  "yellow  bear  ' 

caterpillar.     (Lugger.) 

dorsal  shield  of  the  first  segment  are  shining  bright  orange,  marked 
with  dots.  There  are  eight  black  conical,  elevated  tubercles  on 
the  orange  band  of  each  segment  in  the  middle  region. 

These  caterpillars  (Fig.  183)  feed  quite  commonly  on  the  grape 
and  on  the  Virginia  creeper.  The  species  is  commonly  found 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Control, — An  arsenate  of  lead  spray  is  the  most  efficient  remedy. 


168       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

Attacking  the  Fruit. 

The  Grape  Curculio  (Craponius  incequalis  Say). — This  beetle 
(Fig.  184)  is  black  in  color,  sprinkled  with  grayish  spots,  and  is 
one-tenth  of  an  inch  long.  It  hibernates  in  the  adult  stage,  and 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  young  grapes  in  early  summer. 

Injury. — The  larva  or  grub,  upon  hatching,  enters  the  fruit 
and  feeds  within.  Its  presence  causes  a  discolora- 
tion of  one  side  of  the  berry  as  of  premature  ripen- 
ing. The  berry  remains  plump,  but  sometimes 
drops  before  becoming  ripe.  The  grub,  becoming 
full  grown  before  the  crop  ripens,  leaves  the  berry, 
drops  to  the  ground,  and  buries  itself  a  short 
distance  below  the  surface.  It  changes  to  a  pupa, 
FIG.  184.— The  from  which  the  beetle  escapes  some  time  in  Sep- 

grape  curculio. 


Control  Measures. — Jar  the  vines  occasionally  in  June,  placing 
a  sheet  on  the  ground  beneath  to  catch  the  weevils,  which  can  then 
be  destroyed. 

The  Grape-berry  Moth. — This  insect  is  a  serious  pest  in  vine- 
yards, and  the  injury  it  causes  resembles  that  of  the  grape  curculio. 


FIG.  185. — The  grape-berry  moth:  a,  b,  larva;  c,  pupa;  d,  case  with  empty  pupal  skins; 
all  enlarged;  /,  grapes  with  worm,  natural  size,  hair  lines  indicate  size  of  a,  b,  c,  and  d. 
(U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

The  pest  when  a  moth  (Polychrosis  viteana  Clem.)  has  fore-wings 
of  a  pale,  dull  bluish  shade,  and  hind-wings  dull  brown. 

Injury. — The  caterpillar  enters  the  grape  early  in  July,  produces 
a  discolored  spot;  and  spores  entering  the  grape  at  the  puncture 


CRANBERRY  LEAF-FOLDER  169 

cause  rotting  of  the  fruit  (Fig.  185).  Sometimes  several  grapes 
are  bound  together  by  silken  threads  and  fed  upon  by  one  insect. 
The  first  generation  of  caterpillars  may  also  feed  upon  the  blossoms. 

Transformations. — When  the  larva  is  full  grown,  and  ready 
to  pupate,  it  forms  a  cocoon  on  the  leaves  of  the  vines  by  turning 
over  the  edge  of  a  leaf  and  lining  the  inside  with  silk.  There  are 
two  broods  of  this  insect,  the  spring  brood  being  sometimes  found 
on  weeds. 

Control  Measures. — Since  the  whiter  is  probably  passed  in 
the  pupal  cases  attached  to  leaves,  gathering  and  burning  the 
leaves  will  materially  diminish  their  numbers.  All  diseased  and 
fallen  fruit  should  be  destroyed.  Wormy  grapes  might  be  picked 
off  the  vines  in  summer  at  an  expense  of  about  two  dollars  per 
acre.  Vineyards  sprayed  with  a  combined  fungicide  and  arsenical 
poison  before  blossoms  open  are  not  seriously  affected  with  this  pest. 

Supplementary  List  of  Grape  Insects. — Besides  the  insects 
described  in  this  section  of  the  chapter,  the  following  also  attack 
the  grape  less  seriously.  Where  page  citations  are  given  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  bisect  may  be  found. 

Abbot  sphinx  Mealy  flata 

Achemon  sphinx  Pandorus  sphinx 

Cottony  maple  scale,  p.  287  Pyramidal  grape-vine  caterpillar 

False  chinch  bug  Red-shouldered  simoxylon 

Grape  plume  moth  Saddle-back  caterpillar 

Grape-vine  leaf-folder  Smeared-dagger-moth 

Grape-vine  leaf-sewer  Snowy  tree-cricket,  p.  140 

Indian  euphoria,  p.  106  Spotted  vine-chafer 

INSECTS    INJURIOUS    TO    THE    CRANBERRY 

Attacking  the  Leaves. 

The  Cranberry  Leaf -folder  (Peronea  oxycoccana  Pack.). — This 
is  a  small  moth,  having  a  spread  across  the  wings  of  only  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch.  The  fore-wings  are  reddish  brown  and  the  hind- 
wings  glistening  gray,  the  body  being  a  dark  slate  color. 

The  method  of  control  employed  in  the  New  Jersey  cranberry 
district  is  to  keep  the  bogs  covered  with  water  until  after  the  middle 
of  May,  compelling  the  moths  to  lay  their  eggs  on  other  plants 
belonging  to  the  same  family.  This  practice  aids  greatly  in  con- 
trolling other  cranberry  insects.  One  spray  ing  with  arsenate  of 
lead  will  effectually  destroy  them  if  applied  when  the  eggs  of  the 
second  brood  are  hatching.  Use  five  or  six  pounds  in  fifty  gallons 
of  water. 


170       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 


The  Yellow  Cranberry- worm  (Teras  vacciniivorana  Packard). 
— This  pale  yellow  caterpillar  (Fig.  186)  is  about  three-tenths  of 
an  inch  long  and  feeds  on  the  foliage  of  the  cranberry.  It 

draws  leaves  of  the  plant  together 
with  silken  threads,  feeding  upon  their 
upper  surfaces. 

Control. — Flooding  is  recommended 
as  the  most  effectual  remedy.  The 
vines  should  be  kept  under  water  for 
two  or  three  days.  Fires  lighted  in  the 


Fia.   186. — The  yellow  cranberry  worm,  dorsal  and  side  views  of  larva  and  two  views  of  pupa. 

neighborhood  will  attract  and  destroy  some  of  these  moths. 
Where  possible,  a  thorough. spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  at  the 
rate  of  five  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  at  the  time  of  hatch- 
ing of  the  eggs  of  the  second  brood  will  clear  a  badly  infested 
bog  for  three  or  four  years.  The  time  for  spraying  varies  with 
the  season;  usually  it  should  be  done  about  the  middle  of  summer. 
The  Cranberry  Leaf-roller  (Ar chips  parallella 
Rob.). — This  is  another  caterpillar  which  feeds 
upon  the  foliage  of  the  cranberry.  It  is  reddish 
in  color,  with  a  yellow  head.  It  is  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  number  of  prom- 
inent warts  on  the  back.  From  each  wart  one 
or  more  rather  long,  stiff  hairs  project.  The 
moth  (Fig.  187)  is  a  reddish  orange;  the  fore-wings  are  crossed 
diagonally  with  numerous  fine  lines  of  a  darker  reddish  brown. 

Control. — Apply  the  same  remedies  as  given  for  the  cranberry 
leaf-folder. 

The  Cranberry  Spittle  Insect, — This  is  a  small,  soft,  sucking 


FIG.  187. — The  cran- 
berry leaf-roller. 


FIG.  189. 


CRANBERRY  WEEVIL  171 

insect  (Clastoptera   proteus   Fitch)  found   in  the  spring  in  small 
masses  of  froth-like  secretion  growing  upon  the  shoots  of  the 
cranberry.      When  mature  the  insect  jumps  like  a  flea.      The  vine 
is  weakened  by  the  loss  of  sap. 
Flooding  is  recommended. 

Attacking  the  Fruit. 

The  Cranberry  Fruit  Worm.— The  caterpillar  (Fig.  188)  of  this 
moth  (Mineola  vacdnii  Riley)  is  yellowish  green  in  color.     The 
injury  caused  by  it  takes  place  in  late  summer,  when  it  enters  the 
berries,  eating  the  contents  and  causing    Fia  188 
them  to  turn  prematurely  red.    In  the 
fall  it  becomes  fully  grown  and  buries       L 
itself  in  the  ground,  where  a  cocoon  is       5 
formed,  covered  with  grains  of  sand.  \! 

As  with  the  preceding  insect,  flooding      [i 
appears  to  be  the  only  remedy. 

The    Cranberry  Weevil. — This   is   a       C 
reddish-brown  beetle  (Anthonomus  sutur-       ' 
alis  Lee.)  with  a  dark-brown  head  and     FlG-  iss.— The  ««nberry  fruit- 
a  beak  or  snout  half  as  long  as  its  body     FlG-     189-  ~ 
(Fig.  189).    The  complete  length  of  the 
insect,  including  the  beak,  is  a  little  over  one-eighth  of  an  inch. 

It  selects  an  expanding  blossom  bud,  drills  a  hole  into  it  with 
its  snout,  and  lays  in  the  hole  so  made  a  pale  yellow  egg.  The  bud 
is  then  cut  off  by  the  beetle,  and,  lying  upon  the  ground,  furnishes 
shelter  and  food  for  the  grub,  which  completes  its  transformation 
within.  Finally  the  new  beetle  emerges  from  a  round  hole  in  the 
side  of  the  decaying  bud. 

Flooding  with  water  is  the  remedy  advised. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  do  you  regard  as  the  most  injurious  insect  enemies  of  strawberry 

growers? 

2.  Give  life  history  and  remedies  for  the  strawberry  root-louse. 

3.  Discuss  the  work  of  white  grubs  in  connection  with  strawberries. 

4.  Give  life  history  and  remedies  for  the  strawberry  weevil. 

5.  What  insects,  normally  beneficial,  sometimes  injure  strawberries? 

6.  Name  three  insects  of  importance  which  attack  raspberries  and  black- 

berries; give  life  history  and  remedies  for  each. 

7.  Give  life  history  and  remedies  for  the  imported  currant  worm. 

8.  What  difficulties  are  met  in  combating  the  four-lined  leaf-bug? 

9.  What  striking  feature  indicates  the  presence  in  injurious  numbers  of  the 

currant  plant  louse?    What  is  the  reason  for  this? 


172       INSECT  PESTS  OF  BERRIES  AND  GRAPES 

10.  Describe  the  work  and  methods  of  control  of  the  currant  fruit  fly  and  the 

gooseberry  fruit  worm. 

11.  Give  description,  life  history,  and  remedies  for  the  grape  root  worm. 

12.  What  new  and  interesting  facts  have  been  brought  to  light  in  connection 

with  the  rose  chafer? 

13.  Compare  the  work  of  the  grape-vine  phylloxera  in  Europe  and  America. 

14.  Discuss  the  grape-vine  leaf-hoppers. 

15.  Name  three  other  insects  not  referred  to  above  which  you  regard  as 

injurious  to  the  grape. 

16.  Mention  four  of  the  most  injurious  cranberry  insects  and  give  remedial 

measures  therefor. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PRINCIPAL  INSECTS  AFFECTING  CITRUS  FRUITS 

PROBABLY  the  worst  pests  with  which  orange  and  lemon 
growers  have  to  contend  are  the  various  scales  found  on  branches, 
trunks,  twigs,  and  leaves,  and  in  some  instances  on  the  fruit 
itself.  But  a  number  of  other  insects  attacking  citrus  fruits  are 
discussed  in  this  chapter. 


FIG.   190. — The  red  scale:  a,  winged  male;  b,  female  scale;  c,  male  scale. 

Scale  Insects. — Among  the  scale  insects  may  be  mentioned 
the  following:  (1)  The  red  or  orange  scale  (Chrysomphalus  auran- 
tica)  (Fig.  190). 

(2)  Yellow  scale  (C.  aurantica  var.  citrinus). 

(3)  The  black  scale  (Saissetia  olece)  (Fig.  191),  indirectly  the 
cause  of  black  fungous  growth  on  the  tree. 

173 


174 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  CITRUS  FRUITS 


(4)  The  soft  orange  scale  or  broad  scale  (Coccus  hesperidum) 
(Fig.  192),  everywhere  very  common. 

(5)  The  cottony  cushion  scale  or  ribbed  scale  (I  eery  a  purchasi) 
(Fig.  193),  one  of  the  pests  of  citrus  fruits,  but  now  held  fairly 
well  in  check  by  predaceous  insects  introduced  from  Australia. 

(6)  The  purple  scale  (Lepidosaphes  beckii)   (Fig.  194). 

(7)  The  long  scale  (Mytilaspis  gloveri)  (Fig.  195). 


FIG.   191.— Black  scale. 

(8)  In  addition,   growers  have  to   contend  with  the  circular 
scale  (Aspidiotus  ficus)  (Fig.  196). 

(9)  The  greedy  scale  (A.  rapax)  (Fig.  197). 

(10)  The  white  scale  (A.  nerii).     There  are  also  two  or  more 
troublesome  varieties  of  mealy  bugs  (Pseudococcus  sp.)  (Fig.  198). 

Space  hardly  allows  a  detailed  description  of  all  of  the  above. 
They  all  yield  to  the  same  general  treatment.  Briefly,  it  may  be 
said  that  under  the  chitinous  covering  referred  to  as  a  ' 'scale" 


REMEDIES  FOR  SCALE  INSECTS 


175 


the  insect  is  found;  the  female  produces  either  living  young  or 
eggs,  and  the  young  scales  crawl  about  for  a  time  before  becoming 
permanently  located,  after  which  they  secrete  their  own  covering 
scale. 

This  group  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  many  parasites  and  pre- 
daceous  insects.    Among  the  latter,  "lady  beetles"  or  "lady  birds" 


Fia.  192. — The  broad  scale. 


Fio.   193. — Cottony  cushion  scale  on 
orange  twig.    (Quayle,  Cal.  Bull.,  214.) 


are  the  most  prominent  and  the  most  useful.  Any  effort  to  eradi- 
cate scale  insects  must  naturally  result  also  in  the  death  of  many 
beneficial  forms  preying  upon  them.  But,  inasmuch  as  citrus 
growers  cannot  depend  upon  the  services  of  the  latter,  radical 
treatment  must  be  resorted  to. 

Remedies  for  Scale  Insects. — Spraying  has  been  largely  super- 
seded by  fumigation,  but  is  still  in  use  in  many  orchards.  For 
citrus  trees,  kerosene  emulsion  is  probably  the  safest  of  the  various 


FIG.   194. — Purple  scale;  a,  female  scale,  dorsal  view;  b,  ventral  view;  c,  male  scale 


FIG.  195.— The  long  scale:  a  and  c,  dorsal  and  ventral  view  of    female  scale;  6,  male  scale. 


REMEDIES  FOR  SCALE  INSECTS 


177 


compounds.  This  is  made  by  dissolving  one-half  pound  soap  in 
one  gallon  of  water  by  boiling.  Remove  from  fire  and  add  one 
gallon  of  cheap  kerosene.  Churn  by  forcing  through  spray  pump 
and  add  fourteen  gallons  of  water,  mixing  thoroughly.  It  should 
be  used  at  once.  This  spray  is  intended  to  be  employed  when 
young  scales  are  crawling  over  the  trees. 


Fia.   196. — The  circular  scale. 

Fumigation  is,  on  the  whole,  more  satisfactory  than  spraying 
and  is  in  more  general  use  in  citrus  orchards.  The  chemicals 
most  commonly  employed  are  cyanide  of  potash  and  sulfuric  acid. 
The  most  desirable  proportions  are  one  ounce  of  cyanide  of  potash 
to  two  fluid  ounces  of  commercial  acid  and  four  fluid  ounces  of  water. 
Canvas  tents  made  of  eight-ounce  canvas  should  be  used  to  cover 
the  trees.  These  may  be  rendered  more  impervious  to  gas  leakage 
by  painting  thoroughly  with  boiled  linseed  oil,  or  in  other  ways. 
12 


178  INSECTS  AFFECTING  CITRUS  FRUITS 


FIG.   197. — Orange  infested  with  greedy  scale.     (Quayle,  Cal.  Bull.,  214.) 


Fia.   198.— Mealy  bugs  on  orange.     (Quayle,  Cal.  Bull.,  214.) 


CRESPHONTES  BUTTERFLY 


179 


The  tents  are  constructed  on  various  plans,  according  to  the  prefer- 
ence of  the  grower. 

Manifestly  some  standard  of  dosage  must  be  followed  to  secure 
the  desired  results  with  safety,  and  the  necessary  charges  have 
been  well  worked  out  by  entomologists.  A  formula  is  obtained 
by  multiplying  the  circumference  of  the  tented  tree  by  the  distance 
over  the  top.  Point  off  two  places  in  the  result.  For  example: 
a  tented  tree  measuring  twenty  feet  around  and  thirty  feet  over 
would  require  six  ounces  of  cyanide  of  potash  for  the  purple  scale. 
Using  the  proportions  given  above,  the  formula  would  be:  six 
ounces  cyanide,  twelve  fluid  ounces  acid,  and  eighteen  fluid  ounces 


FIG.   199. — Larva  of  cresphontes  butterfly. 

water  for  each  tree.  This,  however,  is  for  the  purple  scale  only. 
For  the  red,  yellow,  and  black  scales  the  amount  should  be  reduced 
about  one-quarter.  Since  different  methods  of  fumigation  are 
practiced  in  different  sections  and  different  dosages  are  required 
for  various  scales,  growers  are  advised  to  consult  with  their  own 
experiment  station  authorities  in  undertaking  this  work  for  the 
first  time.  For  remedies  for  the  San  Jose"  scale  see  page  72. 

"The  Orange  Dog,"  or  Cresphontes  Butterfly  (Papilio  cres- 
phontes Fab.). — This  conspicuous  caterpillar,  which  feeds  in  the 
North  on  prickly  ash  and  other  plants,  is  at  times  a  serious  enemy 
to  the  orange,  stripping  the  leaves  from  young  trees. 

Description  and  Life  History. — When  full  grown  the  larva  is 


180 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  CITRUS  FRUITS 


CRESPHONTES  BUTTERFLY 


181 


about  two  inches  long,  dark  brown,  and  marked  with  white  or 
light  areas  spotted  with  brown.  Between  the  fourth  and  fifth 
segments  is  a  large  white  patch,  and  a  more  or  less  similar  patch 
is  found  upon  the  posterior  end  of  the  larva.  The  most  striking 
feature  of  the  caterpillar  consists  of  two  long  " horns,"  flesh  colored, 
just  behind  the  head,  which  may  be  extended,  and  which  exude  a 
bad-smelling  fluid  (Fig.  199). 


FIG.  201. — Work  of  thrips  (Euthrips  citri)  on  oranges.     (Quayle,  Cal.  Bull.,  214.) 

When  the  caterpillar  is  about  a  month  old  it  forms  a  grayish 
or  brownish  chrysalis;  is  fastened  to  a  twig  by  means  of  an  attach- 
ment at  the  lower  posterior  end  and  by  a  silken  thread  which 
passes  around  the  twig  and  around  the  middle  of  the  insect. 

The  butterfly  (Fig.  200)  is  one  of  our  most  striking  insects, 
its  wings  measuring  nearly  five  inches  across.  The  black  ground 
color  of  the  upper  surface  is  marked  by  spots  and  bands  of  yellow. 


182  INSECTS  AFFECTING  CITRUS  FRUITS 

Below,  the  wings  are  yellow,  with  blue  spots  on  the  hind  pair. 
Control. — Hand-pick  the  caterpillars  and  pupae. 
Orange  Aphis. — This  is  a  black  or  brownish  aphid  (Siphono- 
phora  sp.)  with  yellowish  legs.    It  sucks  the  sap  from  the  twigs  of 
the  orange.    Both  winged  and  wingless  forms  may  be  seen  on  the 
trees  at  the  same  time,  the  winged  form  migrating  to  other  trees. 
The  life  history  of  the  orange  aphis  agrees  in  general  with  that  of 
other  aphids. 

Control. — A  spray  of  strong  soapsuds  or  tobacco  extract,  with 
soap  added,  is  generally  sufficient  to  control  this  pest.  It  is 
attacked  by  predaceous  and  parasitic  insects. 

Orange  Thrips. — Of  the  various  species  of  thrips  which  work 
on  the  orange,  this  (Euthrips  citri  Moul.)  appears 
to  be  the  most  injurious,  for  if  it  does  not  render 
the  fruit  unmarketable   (Fig.   201),   it  at  least 
obliges  grocers  to  classify  it  as  an  inferior  grade. 
In  certain  regions  in  California  it  is  proving 
an   injurious   pest.      Various    species    of   thrips 
may  be  observed  about  the  blossoms  of  orange 
FIQ.  202.— The  cot-  trees.     They  are  blackish   or    yellowish    insects 

ton  stainer.  .  . 

which  move  rapidly. 

Control. — Spraying  is  the  most  effective  method  of  controlling 
these  insects,  and  the  following  is  recommended  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Entomology : 

Commercial  lime  sulfur,  2^  gallons;  black  leaf  extract,  2  gallons  of  2 ^4 
per  cent  or  14  fluid  ounces  of  40  per  cent;  water,  200  gallons. 

Possibly  three  applications  may  be  necessary  at  intervals  of 
about  ten  days.  The  spray  should  be  applied  forcibly. 

The  Rust  Mite. — The  rust  often  observed  on  the  fruit  of  the 
orange  is  caused  by  the  activities  of  a  whitish  mite  (Phytoptus  sp.) 
which  is  frequently  found  in  large  numbers  on  the  skin. 

Control. — A  strong  soap  solution  is  recommended  for  the  ex- 
termination of  this  pest. 

The  Cotton  Stainer  (Dysdercus  suturellus  H.  Schif.). — This 
bug  is  not  only  a  bad  pest  of  cotton,  but  it  also  sometimes  seriously 
injures  the  fruit  of  the  orange  by  sucking  the  juice.  As  a  result  of 
its  work  the  fruit  may  decay  and  fall.  When  adult  (Fig.  202)  its 
ground  color  is  black,  with  red  anterior  markings.  The  margins 
of  the  body  are  pale  yellow,  and  two  white  lines  cross  on  the  back 
when  the  wings  are  folded.  It  is  bright  red  below.  The  eggs  are 


FIQ.  203, — The  angular-winged  katydid.     /,  adult;  la  and  2b,  eggs;  Ib,  nymphs;  2  and  £a, 
female  and  male  chalcid  egg-parasites  of  this  katydid. 


184  INSECTS  AFFECTING  CITRUS  FRUITS 

placed  on  the  under  side  of  leaves.  The  nymphs  emerging  there- 
from are  strikingly  bright  red  with  dark  legs. 

Control. — These  bugs  are  attracted  to  cotton  seed  and  may  be 
killed  by  making  use  of  small  piles  of  seed  and  pouring  hot  water 
or  kerosene  upon  the  bugs  when  gathered  together. 

The  Orange  Basket  Worm. — The  male  insect  is  dark  brown, 
the  female  whitish.  Eggs  are  laid  in  a  case  hanging  from  a  leaf 
or  twig  made  by  a  larva  when  full  grown.  Before  mating,  the  case 
is  dragged  about  by  the  occupant,  whose  head  and  legs  protrude. 
This  case  is  evidently  made  up  by  bits  of  bark  or  leaves  held 
together  by  a  thread  secreted  by  the  caterpillar.  The  pupa  is 
found  hi  the  suspended  case,  the  male  pupal  skin  protruding  from 
the  case  after  the  perfect  insect  has  issued. 

Control. — These  cases  are  so  conspicuous  that  hand-picking  is 
the  most  obvious  method  of  control  where  the  insects  are 
discovered. 

The  Angular  Winged  Katydid. — A  night-loving  insect  is  this 
katydid  (Microcentrum  retinervis  Burm.).  It  is  green  in  color  and 
about  two  and  one-half  niches  long.  It  is  better  known  .by  its 
rasping  note  heard  in  the  evening  than  by  any  other  feature.  The 
eggs  are  laid  in  such  a  way  that  they  overlap  on  both  leaf  and  twig 
(Fig.  203).  This  insect  is  fortunately  attacked  in  the  egg  stage 
by  an  abundance  of  parasites  and  as  an  adult  it  is  preyed  upon 
by  birds. 

Control. — Winter  pruning  and  destruction  of  cuttings  are  help- 
ful. Instead  of  destroying  all  cuttings,  enterprising  orchardists 
often  collect  eggs  in  winter  and  place  them  in  boxes  covered  by 
fine  wire  gauze.  If  the  young  hatch,  they  are  destroyed.  But  if 
the  egg  parasites  issue  hi  the  spring,  they  are  allowed  to  escape. 

The  Lubber  Grasshopper  (Romalea  microptera  Serv.). — This 
huge,  slow-moving  Orthopteran  occasionally  damages  citrus  fruits. 
It  does  not  fly  and  consequently  can  be  easily  controlled. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  five,  scales  injuring  oranges  and  lemons. 

2.  Give  briefly  the  life  history  of  scale  insects. 

3.  Tell  what  class  of  insecticides  is  called  for  in  their  treatment. 

4.  Describe  fumigation  of  orchard  trees  for  scale  insects. 

5.  Mention  several  other  insects  attacking  citrus  fruits. 

6.  Describe  the  injury  of  each  of  these;  give  methods  of  control  for  each. 


CHAPTER  XII 
INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS  AND  PASTURAGE 

THE  enormous  amount  of  grain  and  other  field  crops  raised  in 
this  country,  and  the  importance  of  stock-raising  and  milk  produc- 
tion, are  such  as  to  make  consideration  of  insects  affecting  field 
crops  and  pasturage  of  special  importance.  The  pests  concerned 
are  discussed  in  the  following  pages. 

WHEAT  INSECTS 

Hessian  Fly  (Mayetiola  destructor  Say). — This  fly,  which 
causes  an  annual  loss  of  many  thousands  of  dollars  in  the  United 
States,  is  hardly  ever  observed  by 
the  layman  on  account  of  its  ex- 
tremely small  size.  It  is  a  dark- 
colored  gnat  with  two  wings.  As 
it  is  only  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long 
(Fig.  204),  probably  not  one  in  a 
thousand  of  our  farmers  has  ever 
seen  this  insect  in  the  adult  stage. 

Life  History. — The  so-called 
"flaxseeds"  (Fig.  205)  which  repre- 
sent the  pupal  stage  are  easily  ob- 
served under  the  sheathing  leaves, 
next  to  the  stem,  generally  above 
the  first  joint,  although  they  may 
be  found  higher  up  on  the  stem. 
The  fly  emerges  from  these  flax- 
seeds  either  in  the  stubble  or  in  the 
grass  or  weeds  along  the  edges  of 
the  fields.  It  lays  from  one  hundred 

to    One    hundred    and    fifty    eggS    in    FIG.  204.— Hessian  fly  on  wheat  plant, 

much  enlarged. 

early  spring  on  young  wheat  plants. 

The  maggots  hatching  from  these  eggs  work  against  the  stem 
beneath  the  sheath  leaf  as  above  indicated.  The  winter  is  passed 
in  the  pupal  stage;  called  "flaxseed"  because  of  its  resem- 
blance to  the  seed  of  the  flax  plant. 

Injury. — Affected  plants,   when  young,   appear  darker   than 

185 


186  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

normal  plants.  Later,  when  the  head  is  formed  and  about  the  time 
the  grain  is  in  the  milk,  the  weakened  straw  breaks  just  above  the 
working  place  of  the  maggot,  causing  the  grain  to  lodge  or 


FIG.  205.— Puparia  of  Hessian' fly,  so-called  "flaxseeds, "  in  infested  wheat  stems.      Also 
showing  characteristic  breaking  down  of  stem.     (Original.) 

the  heads  to  lie  on  the  ground  and  be  missed  by  the  binder.     Ker- 
nels in  affected  plants  are  poorly  filled  and  shrunken. 

Control. — Plowing  the  stubble  and  rotation  of  crops  are  good 
farm   practices   in   connection  with   this   insect.     All  volunteer 


ENGLISH  GRAIN  LOUSE  187 

wheat  or  other  small  grain,  as  well  as  grass  growing  around  the 
edges  of  the  fields,  should  be  destroyed.  Varieties  of  wheat  with 
coarse,  strong  stems  are  less  liable  to  injury.  Field  wheat  should 
be  sown  as  late  as  possible.  Burning  the  stubble  where  practicable 
will  destroy  the  flaxseeds.  A  good  system  of  plowing,  crop  rota- 
tion, and  modern  methods  of  agriculture,  however,  are  the  best 
methods  of  prevention. 

The  Wheat  Stem  Maggot  (Meromyza  americana  Fitch). — Un- 
like the  Hessian  fly,  the  larva  of  this  two-winged  insect  feeds  imide 
the  stem,  causing  it  to  become  discolored  or  to  die.  Sometimes 
the  stem  is  cut  off  entirely.  The  adult  fly  is  one-fifth  of  an  inch 
long,  of  a  general  yellowish-white  color,  with  three  black  stripes 
on  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  The  eyes  are  bright  green.  The 
larva  or  maggot  is  light  green  in  color,  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
tapering  toward  either  end.  The  adults  lay  eggs  at  intervals 
during  the  summer.  The  winter  is  passed  by  the  larvae  in  young 
plants,  where  they  transform  into  pupae.  This  insect  also  attacks 
rye  (Fig.  206). 

Control  Measures. — Since  this  bisect  feeds  and  breeds  also  in 
wild  grasses,  it  is  difficult  to  control.  Where  possible  and  safe,  it  is 
suggested  that  the  stubble  be  burned  over.  Fall-plowing,  clean 
cultivating,  and  rotation  of  crops  are  the  most  desirable 
measures  of  prevention. 

The  English  Grain  Louse. — Only  in  latitudes  where  the  winters 
are  comparatively  mild  will  grain  plant  lice  (Macrosiphum  granaria 
Buckton)  seriously  injure  crops.  They  are  found  on  wheat,  rye, 
and  other  winter  grains.  They  feed  on  the  leaves  when  young  and 
later  gather  on  the  ripening  kernels  in  the  heads,  injuring  the 
yield  and  quality  of  the  grain  very  seriously. 

The  life  history  is  approximately  the  same  as  for  other  plant 
lice.  There  are  both  winged  and  wingless  forms.  Each  female 
gives  birth  during  the  summer  to  forty  or  fifty  young,  the  same 
reaching  maturity  in  about  twelve  days.  When  there  is  need  of 
migration,  winged  forms  appear.  As  many  as  fourteen  generations 
have  been  observed  in  one  summer  hi  the  latitude  of  Minnesota. 
These  lice  are  yellowish  green.  The  two  honey  tubes  projecting 
from  the  back  of  each  insect  are  quite  long  and  black  hi  color. 

Control. — Parasites  and  other  natural  enemies  generally  hold 
this  pest  in  check.  No  practical  remedy  is  known  and  none 
needed  in  most  latitudes.  Clean  farming  and  rotation  of  crops 
are  recommended. 


188 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 


FIG.  206. — Wheat  stem  maggot;  three  infested  stems,  full-grown  larvse,  and  parasite.      Hair 
lines  indicate  natural  size  in  each  case.     (Lugger.) 


FRIT-FLY  189 

The  "  Green  Bug." — The  spring  grain  aphis  (Toxoptera  grami- 
num  Rond.)  has  of  late  years  caused  much  injury  to  grain  in  Kansas, 
Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  a  few  other  states  where  the  winter  weather 
is  such  as  to  check  the  growth  of  parasites  which  normally  keep 
this  pest  within  bounds,  and  yet  allows  the  continuous  breeding 
of  the  louse.  Figure  207  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  appearance  of 
this  aphid.  Winged  forms  (Fig.  208)  are  carried  northward  by  the 
wind,  but  in  northern  states  it  does  practically  no  damage. 

Control. — No  measures  of  control  are  necessary  in  the  northern 
states  where  cold  winters  are  the  rule.  In  the  South  no  volunteer 
grain  should  be  allowed  to  grow;  all  such  growth  should  be  de- 
stroyed in  the  early  fall. 


FIG.   207. — The   "green  bug"  FIG.   208. — The  "green  bug,"  winged  migrant  form. 

(Toxoptera  graminum). 

The  Frit-fly  (Oscinis  sp.).— This  fly  (Fig.  209)  looks  very 
much  like  a  small  house  fly.  The  tiny  white  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
fall  on  fall-sown  wheat  or  other  grain.  The  larvae  pass  the  winter 
within  the  plant.  In  regions  where  spring-sown  grain  is  the  rule, 
the  insects  hibernate  in  the  larval  stage  in  the  straw  and  stubble. 
The  adults  emerge  in  spring  and  lay  eggs]  which  produce  the 
first  brood  of  maggots.  Another  brood  of  flies  emerge  during 
midsummer  in  regions  where  fall-sown  grain  is  grown,  laying  eggs 
on  volunteer  grain  plants  and  various  grasses,  the  next  brood  of 
flies— the  fall  brood — laying  their  eggs  on  the  young  plants  of 
the  fall-sown  field. 

Injury. — Heads  of  wheat  and  other  grains  sometimes  wither 
and  die  or  are  filled  with  shrunken  kernels  as  a  result  of  the  work 
of  this  insect.  Sometimes  the  stem  is  cut  off  by  the  young  maggot 
within.  The  presence  of  the  pest  is  indicated  by  a  premature 


190 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 


yellowing  of  the  head  and  of  the  stalk  above  the  infested  point, 
generally  three  or  four  inches  above  the  ground.  This  is  followed 
by  a  breaking  down  of  the  plant.  Just  below  the  point  of  breaking 
the  maggot  can  generally  be  found  within  the  stem. 

Control. — If  straw  is  stacked,  many  hibernating  insects  will  not 
be  able  to  reach  the  surface  of  the  stack.  Burning  or  feeding  up 
the  straw  will,  of  course,  destroy  all  wintering  forms.  In  regions  of 
spring-sown  wheat,  burning  the  stubble  in  the  fall,  where  possible, 
is  a  good  remedial  measure,  as  is  also  the  plowing  under  of  stubble. 
The  latter  method  is  the  most  practical  in  the  northern  states. 


Y 


FIG.   209. — The  frit-fly:  a,  imago;  6,  larva  or  maggot;  c,  puparium  containing  the  pupa. 
All  much  enlarged.     (After  Lugger.) 

The  Wheat-head  Army  Worm  (Meliana  albilinea  Hbn.). — 
This  is  one  of  the  cut-worm  moths.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  on 
leaves  of  different  grains,  timothy  and  other  grasses.  The  worms 
are  observed  at  work  in  June  and  July  and  have  been  found 
entering  the  pupal  stage  in  the  middle  of  the  latter  month. 

Injury. — Timothy  sometimes  suffers  seriously.  Four-fifths  of 
the  timothy  seed  crop  has  been  known  to  be  destroyed  during  one 
season,  and  the  hay  crop  seriously  injured.  On  wheat  the  worms 
eat  the  kernels  of  the  grain,  allowing  the  chaff  to  fall  to  the  ground 
(Fig.  210). 


CHINCH  BUG 


191 


Description.  —  The  adult  moth  is  brownish  yellow,  resembling 
in  a  general  way  other  cut-worm  moths.  The  caterpillars  or  larvse 
vary  in  color  from  green  to  very  dark  brown  or  blackish;  they 
almost  invariably  show  characteristic 
stripes  on  back  and  sides.  When  full 
grown,  they  are  one  and  one-fourth 
inches  long.  The  pupae  are  of  mahog- 
any color;  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long. 
They  are  found  two  or  three  inches  in 
the  ground.  i 

Control  Measures.  —  Some  of  the 
following  methods  are  applicable  to 
pastures  when  attacked,  and  some  to 
grain  : 

Early  fall  pasturing  will  starve  the 
second  brood.  Wild  grasses  in  the 
vicinity  of  cultivated  crops  should 
be  destroyed.  Plow  stubble  early  in 
the  fall.  Land  should  not  lie  in  pas- 
ture for  more  than  three  or  four  years. 
Since  these  worms  sometimes  march  to 
a  field  in  a  vast  army,  furrows  can  be 
plowed  across  this  line  of  march, 
throwing  the  furrow  away  from  the 
crop  to  be  protected.  The  worms 
may  be  killed  in  the  furrows  with 
kerosene  or  by  covering  them  with 
straw  and  burning  it.  Where  prac- 
ticable, a  strip  of  grain  or  pasturage 
across  the  line  of  march  should  be 
sprayed  with  a  strong  solution  of 
Paris  green,  or,  better,  with  arsenate 
of  lead. 

The  Chinch  Bug  (Blissus  leucopterus 
Say).—  This  vile-smelling  bug  is  well 

knOWn     tO    mOSt    Of    OUr    farmers     and 
.....  . 

owes  its  names  to  its  bedbug  odor, 
its  name  being  a  corruption  of  a  Spanish  word  meaning  bed- 
bug. The  adult  is  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long.  It  has  a  black 
body  and  white  wings,  each  marked  with  a  black  triangle  on 
the  outer  margin.  The  bases  of  feelers  or  antennae  and  bases 


FlG.  210._The  wheat.head  army 


^  d>  two  views  of  eggs,  enlarged;  the 
male  moth.     (After  Riley.) 


192 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 


The   young   bugs   are 
brownish  black.     They 


yellowish   or 
grow  darker 


of  the  legs  are  reddish, 
bright  red,  marked  with 
with  age. 

Life  History. — This  insect  passes  the  winter  hi  the  adult  stage 
under  shocks  of  corn  or  under  leaves  in  the  woods  or  under  rubbish 
of  any  sort  in  the  fields.  It  comes  out  as  soon  as  warm  weather 
arrives  in  the  spring,  generally  early  in  May,  and  flies  to  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  or  grass  lands.  Here  the  female  deposits  eggs  upon  the 
ground  close  to  the  roots  of  the  plants  or  upon  the  bases  and  roots 
themselves.  About  500  eggs  are  laid  during  a  period  of  ten  to 
fifteen  days.  These  hatch  in  two  weeks,  the  nymphs  beginning 

at  once  to  feed  like  the  adults  by 
sucking  the  juices  from  the  young 
plants.  There  are  generally  two 
broods.  Since,  however,  the  eggs 
laid  by  one  female  are  not  all  de- 
posited at  once,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  summer  insects  of  all  stages  are 
observed.  From  fifty-seven  to  sixty 
days  are  required  for  the  life  cycle  of 
one  generation. 

Injury.  —  Although  grains  and 
grasses  are  weakened  by  attack,  the 
worst  injury  occurs  upon  corn,  for 
corn  is  sought  aftes  the  grasses  or 
grains  ripen.  Frequently  one  ob- 
serves in  the  field  a  vast  army  of 
chinch  bugs  of  all  ages  migrating 
from  grain  field  to  corn  field,  appear- 
ing to  know  instinctively  the  direc- 
tion in  which  their  chosen  food  lies. 
Control — We  have  not  as  yet  learned  to  successfully  control 
this  pest  in  wheat  fields,  and  all  our  efforts  are  directed  against 
protecting  the  outer  rows  of  corn.  While  the  Hessian  fly  prefers 
the  moist  weather,  rams  destroy  young  chinch  bugs  and  encourage 
the  growth  of  parasitic  fungi  (Fig.  211).  Unlike  the  Hessian  fly, 
therefore,  the  chinch  bug  prefers  and  revels  in  the  hot  sun.  It  is 
a  frequent  practice  to  interpose  some  barrier  between  the  advancing 
bugs  and  the  corn  fields.  A  deep  furrow  with  the  steep  side  toward 
the  corn  may  be  plowed  if  the  bugs  are  observed  in  time.  The 
insects  which  gather  in  the  furrow  may  be  destroyed  with  kerosene 


FIG.  211. — Diseased  chinch  bug. 
(Lugger.) 


GRASSHOPPERS  193 

or  burned  with  straw.  A  band  of  tar  road  oil  three  inches  wide 
may  take  the  place  of  the  furrow.  In  irrigated  regions  a  water 
barrier  is  effective.  Some  states  have  found  burning  the  bugs  in 
their  winter  quarters  to  be  extremely  helpful ;  and  this  may  protect 
the  wheat  fields.  Spraying  the  outer  rows  of  corn  with  nicotine 
sulfate  has  also  been  practiced. 

It  has  been  observed  that  in  chinch-bug  years  farmers  who  allow 
pigeon  grass  and  other  so-called  weeds  to  grow  among  the  corn 
have  not  suffered  from  the  attacks  of  chinch  bugs  as  much  as  the 
more  careful  farmers.  Careless  farming  is  not  to  be  encouraged, 
but  it  may  be  suggested  that  in  cultivating  corn  in  chinch-bug 


FIG.  212. — A  grasshopper  ovipositing.     (After  Howard.) 

years  the  three  or  four  outer  rows  be  left  uncultivated  in  order 
that  the  weeds  may  have  a  chance  to  grow  and  protect  the  balance 
of  the  corn  crop. 

Grasshoppers. — It  is  hardly  desirable  to  describe  the  various 
species  of  grasshoppers  in  a  work  of  this  kind.  All  of  our  related 
grasshoppers  have  approximately  the  same  life  history.  They 
are  really  locusts  belonging  to  the  family  Acrididae,  not  grass- 
hoppers. The  winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage,  the  young  hatch 
in  spring.  The  wingless  young  are  rather  inactive  and  clumsy 
until  after  the  second  or  third  moult.  If  food  is  scarce  at  this  time, 
they  congregate  in  great  numbers  and  march  across  country, 
devouring  every  green  thing  in  their  path.  Often  fields  and  forests 
are  deprived  of  every  bit  of  foliage. 
13 


194 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 


•OJT, 


FIG.  213. — Details  of  con- 
struction of  hopperdozer.  The 
back  and  sides  are  canvas. 
(Original.) 


These  insects  are  essentially  single- 
brooded.  Figure  212  illustrates  a  female, 
with  badly  frayed  wings,  egg-laying. 

Natural  Enemies. — They  are  at  all 
times  subject  to  the  attacks  of  birds, 
skunks  and  many  other  animals,  and  the 
eggs  are  eaten  by  two  or  more  species  of 
blister  beetles,  as  well  as  ground  beetles, 
harvest  mites,  etc.  Fungous  and  bacterial 
diseases  also  play  a  large  part  in  reducing 
their  numbers. 

Control  Measures. — Deep  plowing  in 
the  late  fall  or  early  spring  helps  to  break 
up  the  egg  masses.  Alfalfa  land  should  be 
thoroughly  disked.  When  the  young 
appear  in  the  spring)  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  burn  the  stubble.  Bunches  of 
straw  may  be  scattered  about  on  cold 
days  and  the  grasshoppers  gathering 
thereon  may  be  burned.  Farmers  some- 
times destroy  the  newly  hatched  "hop- 
pers" when  occurring  in  grass  land  or  a 
field  in  any  crop  by  plowing,  beginning 
at  the  outside  and  working  into  the  center 
of  the  field.  Many  are  buried  hi  the 
furrows.  Ditches  two  feet  wide  and  two 
feet  deep  may  form  impassable  barriers  in 
the  line  of  their  march.  If  there  is  water  in 
the  ditches,  the  surface  should  be  oiled. 
Before  grasshoppers  become  winged,  hop- 
perdozers  are  used  effectively.  Figure  213 
illustrates  details  of  structure  of  a  hop- 
perdozer. See  also  figures  70  and  71. 
Flocks  of  turkeys  in  the  field  do  much  to 
reduce  the  numbers  of  this  pest.  Coopera- 
tion among  farmers  when  the  grasshoppers 
first  appear  is  not  only  desirable  but  very 
necessary. 

A  poison  spray,  quite  successfully  used, 
is  made  as  follows:  Arsenite  of  soda,  3 
pounds;  molasses,  1J/2  gallons;  water,  180 


GRASSHOPPERS 


195 


gallons.  Fifty  gallons  of  this  is  sprayed  over  an  acre. 
The  material  costs  about  thirty  to  fifty  cents  per  acre.  Insects 
partaking  of  this  poison  appear  to  be  paralyzed  and  die  in  from 
twelve  to  thirty-six  hours.  No  injurious  effects  are  noticed 
among  animals  eating  foliage  thus  sprayed  (Fig.  214). 

Poisoned  bran  mash  may  also  be  scattered  about  where  cattle 
and  chickens  have  not  access  to  it.  It  is  found  useful  hi  portions 
of  the  West  and  South.  It  is  made  as  follows:  two  pounds  Paris 
green,  twenty-five  pounds  bran,  two  gallons  cheap  molasses.  Mix 


FIG.  214. — Spraying  for  grasshoppers. 

the  Paris  green  with  the  dry  bran,  moisten  with  water,  and  stir  in  the 
molasses.  This  mixture  should  be  about  the  consistency  of  chicken 
feed  and  should  be  broadcasted  over  infested  fields  in  the  evening 
or  early  hi  the  morning,  before  sunrise.  The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  recommends  the  following  as  an  effective 
bait :  Mix  one  pound  Paris  green  with  twenty-five  pounds  of  wheat 
bran.  To  two  quarts  of  cheap  molasses  or  syrup  add  the  juice 
of  two  oranges  or  lemons,  as  well  as  the  finely  chopped  skin  and 
pulp  of  the  fruit;  dilute  this  with  two  gallons  of  water  and  add  it 
to  the  poisoned  bran.  Add  enough  more  water  to  make  a  stiff 
dough.  This  is  to  be  spread  as  above  indicated. 


196  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

Joint  Worms. — The  different  species  of  this  group,  Isosoma, 
are  four-winged  flies.  They  live  through  the  winter  as  larvae  or 
pupae  in  cells  in  the  stem  of  wheat  and  some  other  grains.  The 
adults  emerge  in  spring  after  the  young  grain  hag  thrown  up 
stems  so  that  several  joints  have  become  exposed.  The  female 
places  her  eggs  in  these  stems  and  the  larvae  feed  within,  becoming 
full  grown  by  the  time  the  straw  is  hardened.  They  pass  the  winter 
in  the  cells  thus  made. 

Injury. — This  is  a  serious  pest  in  the  wheat  regions  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  The  damage  varies  from  being  slight  to  a 
total  loss  of  the  entire  crop.  '  Swellings  and  other  malformations 
arising  from  the  presence  of  this  insect  often  occur  in  infested 
straw.  Such  straw  is  brittle  and  woody.  By  cutting  off  the  sap 
supply  from  the  head,  worms  prevent  the  filling  out  of  the  kernels. 
The  wind  also  breaks  down  these  brittle  straws.  At  threshing 
time  its  presence  is  shown  by  hard  bits  of  straw  containing  larvae 
appearing  in  the  threshed  grain. 

Control. — The  following  suggestions  are  not  always  applicable; 
a  farmer  must  select  such  as  are  practicable  for  the  circumstances 
existing  on  his  farm :  Fields  should  be  worked  into  the  best  possible 
condition  before  seeding.  Sow  as  early  as  possible,  and  use  early- 
maturing  varieties.  Fields  should  be  well  fertilized,  thus  inducing 
rapid  and  vigorous  growth.  Practice  rotation  of  crops.  Plow 
under  or  burn  stubble  in  late  fall.  Burn  all  infested  straw  which 
has  not  been  fed  or  used  by  the  last  of  April. 

INSECTS    ATTACKING    CLOVER   AND    ALFALFA 

The  Clover-seed  Chalcid. — This  tiny,  four-winged  fly  (Bruco- 
phagus  funebris  How.)  is  sometimes  erroneously  referred  to  as  a 
"weevil"  by  farmers.  It  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  young  seeds. 
This  gives  rise  to  a  tiny  grub,  which  devours  the  entire  contents  of 
the  seed.  It  may  also  enter  larger  seeds.  It  transforms  from  the 
larval  form  to  the  pupal  form  within  the  seed  (Fig.  215). 

Injury. — This  insect  has  been  so  destructive  in  places  that  the 
raising  of  clover  for  seed  has  been  abandoned.  In  clover-raising 
sections  of  Minnesota  the  depredations  of  this  insect  cause  an 
annual  loss  of  many  thousands  of  dollars.  The  clover  itself  is  not 
injured  by  its  work.  Affected  seeds  are  more  or  less  misshapen 
or  undersized  and  can,  for  the  most  part,  be  detected  in  the  mass 
of  seed  offered  for  sale. 

Control. — Cut  the  hay  crop  while  heads  are  still  green  to  pre- 
vent the  maturing  of  the  pest  and  the  consequent  attack  on  ths 


CLOVER  ROOT-BORER 


197 


seed  crop.  As  is  very  evident,  cooperation  among  farmers  in  the 
neighborhood  is  very  necessary.  These  recommendations  apply 
to  medium  red  clover,  not  to  mammoth  clover,  since  in  this  variety 
the  first  cutting  is  utilized  for  seed.  One  should  also  cut  all  volun- 
teer red  clover  along  roadsides  and  fences,  and  all  waste  about  the 
huller  should  be  swept  up  and  destroyed,  since  many  of  the  in- 
fested seeds  are  separated  out  by  the  huller. 


FIG.  215. — Alfalfa-seed  or  clover-seed  chalcis  fly:  a,  adult;  b,  larva;  c,  pupa.     Much  enlarged. 
(Urbahns,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

The  Clover  Root-borer. — The  adult  insect  is  a  reddish-brown 
beetle  (Hylastinus  obscurus  Marsh)  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
long.  These  insects  hibernate  in  the  clover  roots,  beginning  their 
work  in  the  roots  when  warm  weather  begins.  Eggs  are  deposited 
along  the  sides  of  the  burrow  in  the  spring.  Frequently,  however, 
they  are  laid  on  the  crown  of  the  plant  and  sometimes  even  at 
the  sides  of  roots  two  or  three  inches  below  the  ground.  Fre- 
quently the  larvae  feed  in  the  excavation  made  by  the  mother,  but 
soon  start  burrows  on  their  own  account.  By  the  middle  of  summer 


198  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

most  of  them  have  become  full  grown  and  pass  into  the  pupal 
stage.  The  second  brood  of  beetles  appears  in  the  fall,  not  leaving 
the  plant,  however,  until  the  following  spring.  The  dispersal  of 
these  insects  takes  place  in  spring;  the  beetles  then  fly  about 
seeking  uninfested  plants. 

Injury. — The  tap  roots  of  Mammoth  and  Common  Red  Clover 
are  sometimes  seriously  injured  by  this  insect,  while  alsike  is  not 
so  subject  to  attack.  Since  alfalfa  in  Europe  has  been  injured,  we 
may  expect  ultimately  to  have  the  same  trouble  here.  The  first- 
year  clover  is  exempt  from  attack  on  account  of  the  small  size  of 
the  roots. 

Control. — Wherever  possible,  summer  fallow  the  soil  as  soon 
as  the  first  cutting  of  the  crop  is  removed.  This  dries  out  the  roots 
and  starves  the  larvae.  Fields  of  clover  should  not  stand  in  clover 
more  than  three  years.  Scientific  rotation  of  crops  is  also  desirable. 

The  Clover  Hay  Worm*  (Hypospygia  costalis  Fab.). — This 
caterpillar  attacks  hay  in  the  stack.  It  interweaves  the  hay  with 
white  silken  webs  mixed  with  black  particles  of  excrement,  giving 
the  hay  an  appearance  of  being  mouldy,  and  reducing  much  of  it 
to  chaff.  Such  hay  is  not  attractive  to  stock. 

Description. — The  caterpillar  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long 
when  full  grown.  It  is  dull  brown  in  color,  and  may  be  found  in 
barns  throughout  the  winter,  pupating  in  the  spring.  The  moth 
is  rather  striking  in  appearance,  with  whig  expanse  of  one  inch. 
The  silky  wings  are  tinged  with  purple  above,  margined  with  yel- 
low, and  fringed  with  orange.  There  are  two  large,  conspicuous, 
golden  spots  on  each  fore-wing. 

Control. — Old  hay  is  more  apt  to  be  attacked  than  the  new 
crop.  Therefore,  farmers  are  advised  not  to  keep  hay  over  a 
second  year.  Feeding  the  hay  to  stock  will  cause  the  young  cater- 
pillars in  infested  hay  to  perish  before  the  new  crop  comes  in. 
Hay-mows  should  be  cleaned  out  each  spring,  and  one  should  never 
place  new  hay  on  top  of  the  old.  It  is  suggested,  further,  that  new 
stacks  of  hay  be  built  at  some  distance  from  the  old.  All  refuse 
from  old  stacks  or  the  bottom  of  the  hay-mow  should  be  burned. 
Stacks  should  be  raised  above  the  ground  on  a  foundation  of  logs 
or  rails  so  that  the  bottom  may  be  kept  fairly  cool  and  dry.  These 
caterpillars  are  more  active  where  there  is  warmth  and  moisture. 
It  is  further  suggested  that  hay  be  salted  on  the  bottom  of  the 
stack  or  mow,  using  about  two  quarts  of  salt  to  every  ton  of  hay. 

Blister  Beetles  (Macrobasis  unicolor  Kby.  and  Epicauta  penn- 


BLISTER  BEETLES 


199 


sylvanica  DeG.)- — The  first  named  of  these  beetles  is  grayish  in 
color,  and  the  second  shining  black.  These  beetles  are  striking  in 
appearance,  have  rather  long  legs,  with  a  somewhat  elongated 
thorax  or  neck  (Fig.  216).  The  bodies  are  long,  straight-cut,  and 
are  said  to  cause  blisters  when  crushed  on  the  skin.  A  near  rela- 
tive found  in  Europe  is  known  as  the  " Spanish  fly"  and  is  used  in 
medicine.  The  adult  beetle  emerges  in  the  spring. 

Injury. — Occasionally  these  beetles  are  extremely  injurious  to 
leguminous  plants,  although  they  may  be  regarded  as  general 
feeders.  They  work  also  on  sugar- 
beets,  potatoes,  various  flowering 
plants,  and  trees  and  shrubs. 

Benefit. — These  insects  have  the 
redeeming  feature  that  when  hatched 
the  small,  long-legged  larvae  imme- 
diately run  about  searching  for 
grasshopper  eggs  in  the  field.  Upon 
these  they  feed.  A  little  later  the 
skin  of  the  larva  is  shed,  together 
with  the  long  legs  of  the  first  form  of 
larva,  and  we  find  them  in  the  second 
stage  possessing  very  short  rudimen- 
tary legs.  This  form  is  found  in  grass- 
hopper nests  feeding  upon  the  eggs. 

Control. — These  beetles  are  quite 
resistant  to  arsenicals,  but  can  be 
driven  off  of  a  crop  by  applying 
Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  sprays. 
When  occurring  on  trees,  they  may  be  jarred  off  on  sheets  and 
destroyed  by  being  thrown  into  kerosene.  This  same  method 
may  perhaps  apply  in  the  case  of  some  other  plants  if  the 
attack  is  not  too  general.  The  usual  arsenical  sprays  applied 
to  potatoes  will  serve  to  keep  them  in  check  upon  these  plants. 
A  mixture  of  arsenate  of  lead,  three  pounds  hi  fifty  gallons  of 
water,  if  sweetened  with  cheap  molasses  or  syrup,  makes  a  fairly 
effective  spray. 

When  alfalfa  or  other  crop  is  seriously  attacked,  any  remedial 
measure,  to  be  effective,  should  be  applied  at  once.  Alfalfa  may  be 
sprayed  with  arsenicals  as  above  indicated,  in  which  case  more 
than  one  application  may  be  necessary,  and  the  sprayed  portions 
should  not  be  used  for  hay. 


FIG.   216.— A  blister  beetle. 


200  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

Dean  suggests,  the  field  may  be  " beaten"  with  branches  by  a 
line  of  men  or  children,  driving  the  beetles  before  them  to  the 
edge  of  the  field  where  rows  of  dry  hay  or  straw  have  been  pre- 
viously placed.  The  insects  will  run  beneath  these  rows  for  shelter 
and  may  then  be  destroyed  by  burning. 

The  Alfalfa  Caterpillar  (Eurymus  eurythene  Boisd.). — The 
sulfur-yellow  butterfly  producing  the  alfalfa  caterpillar  is  common 
practically  over  the  entire  United  States  and  the  southern  part  of 
Canada.  It  is  an  insect  familiar  to  almost  all  young  collectors. 
The  wing  expanse  is  about  two  inches. 

Description. — The  black  band  on  the  wings  of  the  female  is 
more  or  less  dotted  with  white,  these  dots  being  absent  in  the  male. 
There  is  a  prominent  black  dot  in  the  center  of  the  fore-wing, 
and  a  pale  yellow  spot  in  the  center  of  each  hind-wing  in  both 
male  and  female. 

Life  History. — The  small,  spindle-shaped  eggs  are  laid  on 
green  alfalfa.  These  hatch  into  dark-green  worms,  about  one 
inch  long  when  full  grown,  with  a  light  stripe  on  each  side,  inter- 
rupted by  black  and  red  dots.  The  chrysalis  is  greenish  yellow, 
and  is  attached,  head  up,  by  two  threads  to  a  stalk  of  alfalfa  or 
to  weeds  and  grasses.  The  winter  is  passed  in  this  stage.  It 
probably  has  two  or  three  broods. 

Injury. — This  insect  is  extremely  abundant  in  the  West  where 
large  fields  of  alfalfa  occur,  and  it  is  a  serious  pest  to  this  crop. 
This  is  particularly  true  in  California,  Arizona,  and  other  parts 
of  the  Southwest. 

Enemies. — A  contagious  intestinal  disease,  resembling  some- 
what in  effect  flacherie  of  the  silkworm,  may  be  in  part  responsible 
for  keeping  this  butterfly  in  check  in  portions  of  California  and 
Arizona  (Circular  133,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology). 

The  caterpillar  is  preyed  upon  by  Tachina  flies  and  by 
hymenopterous  parasites.  The  cotton  boll  worm  is  also  said  to 
attack  it. 

Control. — Pasturing  the  affected  fields  is  recommended.  Also, 
keep  the  soil  in  the  best  cultural  condition.  Irrigate  frequently, 
and  immediately  after  the  crop  has  been  cut  and  the  hay  removed. 
Renovate  by  disking.  Cut  the  alfalfa  close  to  the  ground,  and  cut 
earlier  than  the  general  rule.  Always  cut  a  few  days  before  it  is 
in  blossom,  Turkeys  and  chickens,  if  allowed  to  run  in  the  fields, 
will  reduce  the  number  of  caterpillars.  Cooperation  on  the  part 
of  all  farmers  in  an  infected  district  is  necessary. 


CORN  LEAF  APHIS  201 

INSECTS    ATTACKING    BEETS 

The  Beet  Aphis. — This  louse  (Pemphigus  betce  Doane)  is 
found  in  clusters  on  the  small  rootlets  of  the  sugar  beet,  and  is 
very  destructive  in  some  of  the  Pacific  Coast  states.  Infested 
beet  plants  fail  to  make  normal  growth,  and  the  beets  become  soft 
and  spongy.  Small  rootlets  are  attacked,  cutting  off  the  plant 
food  supply.  A  plant  badly  infested  indicates  its  condition  by 
wilting  of  the  leaves,  and  if  the  plants  are  small  they  may  die  as 
a  result  of  the  attack. 

Life  History. — Several  generations  occur  in  a  season,  and  wdnged 
individuals  appear  from  time  to  time.  These  winged  forms  are 
usually  found  in  the  fall,  at  which  time  they  fly  to  cottonwood 
trees  and  give  rise  to  true  sexual  forms.  After  mating,  the  female 
deposits  a  single  winter  egg  in  a  crevice  of  the  cottonwood  bark. 
In  the  spring  this  egg  gives  rise  to  a  louse,  which  forms  a  gall  on 
the  cottonwood.  A  single  generation  of  lice  are  produced  in  the 
galls.  These  are  all  winged  and  migrate  to  beets,  weeds,  and 
grasses,  there  giving  birth  to  young,  which  descend  to  the  roots 
and  start  new  colonies  of  winged  viviparous  females. 

Control. — But  few  measures  of  control  are  known.  Scientific 
rotation  of  crops  is  advised,  and  it  is  suggested  that  root  crops  be 
not  grown  on  the  same  land  year  after  year. 

INSECTS    AFFECTING    CORN    AND    SUGAR    CANE 

A  number  of  insects  affecting  the  corn  crop  are  treated  under 
other  heads.  The  corn  ear-worm  eats  into  bolls  of  cotton  and 
is  called  also  the  cotton  boll  worm.  (See  page  218.)  It  also 
bores  into  the  fruit  of  tomato,  and  attacks  corn  in  the  silk.  The 
chinch  bug  is  a  serious  enemy  of  corn,  wheat,  and  other  crops. 
(See  page  191.) 

The  Corn  Leaf  Aphis. — This  plant  louse  (Aphis  maidis  Fitch), 
like  most  others  of  the  family,  has  both  winged  and  wingless 
forms.  The  wingless  lice  are  pale  green  in  color,  and  the  winged 
lice  are  black  and  green  (Fig.  217).  They  appear  in  midsummer, 
at  which  time  they  may  be  found  on  young  corn  leaves,  where 
they  continue  until  cold  weather. 

Injury. — This  insect  is  rarely  injurious,  but  heavily  infested 
leaves  turn  yellow  or  red  and  may  shrivel  and  die,  especially  in 
dry  weather. 

Control. — Numbers  of  insect  parasites  help  to  control  it  under 
normal  conditions, 


202  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

The  Corn  Root  Aphis. — These  are  bluish-green  lice  (Aphis 
maidi  radicis  Forbes)  found  on  the  roots  of  corn,  from  which  they 
suck  the  sap. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  species  is  dependent  upon 
colonies  of  small  brown  ants,  Lasius  niger  americanus  Em.  The 
ants  carry  the  eggs  into  their  nests,  bringing  them  into  the  sun- 
light on  warm  days  and  carrying  them  below  the  frost  line  in  cold 
weather.  The  young  are  carried  by  the  ants  to  suitable  weeds 
until  the  corn  gets  up,  when  the  ants  transfer  them  to  the  corn. 
The  lice  multiply  very  rapidly,  living  young  being  produced  by 
the  females.  There  may  be  a  dozen  generations  during  the  season. 


C 

Fio.   217. — The  corn  leaf-aphis,  winged  and  wingless  females  and  nymph.     (After  Forbes.) 

In  some  broods  winged  individals  occur,  and  these  migrate  to 
new  fields.  Corn  is  not  the  only  plant  damaged,  for  squash, 
pumpkin,  strawberries,  cotton,  etc.,  may  be  attacked  and  become 
stunted  and  lack  color  in  consequence. 

Control. — Plow  and  harrow  in  the  fall  to  break  up  nests  of 
ants.  Keep  fields  clear  of  weeds  to  deprive  lice  of  food  in  the  spring. 
Rotation  of  crops  should  be  practiced.  Thorough  cultivation  and 
proper  fertilization  are  desirable  to  induce  vigorous  growth. 

The  Sugar-cane  Beetle. — This  is  a  robust  black  beetle  (Ligy- 
rus  rugiceps  Lee.)  about  one-half  of  an  inch  long,  with  stout, 
coarsely  spined  legs.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  ground  on  weakened 
or  decaying  roots.  The  grub  burrows  in  the  stalks  of  corn  and 
sugar  cane  (Fig.  218).  The  corn  is  usually  killed.  Injury  occurs 
early  in  the  growing  season.  The  grub  pupates  in  the  fall,  the 


[Y  WOl 


203 


Rotation 


beetles  hibernating  in  winter  in  the  soil  of  the  fields.    One  genera- 
tion is  produced  annually. 

Control. — Practice  spring  plowing  and  cultivation, 
of  crops  and  clean  cultivation  are  advised. 

The  Western  Corn  Root  Worm. — This  worm  or  grub  (Dia- 
brotica  longicornis  Say)  is  two- 
fifths  of  an  inch  long.  It  is 
slender,  and  is  whitish  or 
yellowish,  with  a  black  or 
brown  head.  It  produces  a 
small,  greenish  beetle  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  long  (Fig.  2 19). 

Life  History.— The  beetle 
lays  its  eggs  in  the  soil  of  corn 
fields  in  the  fall  and  then  dies. 
The  winter  is  passed  in  the 
egg  stage,  the  eggs  hatching 
after  corn  is  planted  hi  the 
spring.  After  that  time  until 
fall  the  grubs  are  found  at  the 
roots  of  the  corn.  The  beetles, 
in  late  summer  and  until  cold 
weather  appears,  are  found  on 
or  about  the  silk  of  corn  and 
on  late  summer  flowers,  such 
as  thistles,  golden-rod,  and  red 
clover.  They  disappear  at  once 
on  the  advent  of  cold  weather. 

Injury. — By  mining  hi  the 
main  roots  of  the  corn,  the 
worm  checks  the  plant's 
growth  and  may  cause  its 
death. 

Control. — Practice  crop  ro- 
tation. Corn  planted  the  year 
following  another  kind  of  crop 
will  not  be  injured. 

The  Army  Worm. — The  full-grown  caterpillar  of  this  species 
(Heliophila  unipunda  Haw.)  is  nearly  two  inches  long.  It  is 
either  of  a  dark  gray  or  dingy  black  color.  It  has  three  narrow, 
yellowish  stripes  above  and  a  smaller,  darker  one  at  each  side. 


FIG.   218.— The  sugar-cane  beetle.     (U.  S. 
Bu.  Ent.) 


204 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 


It  closely  resembles  some  of  the  cut-worms  and  is,  in  fact,  a  member 
of  that  family.  The  moths  are  among  the  most  common  of  the 
so-called  " millers."  The  front  wings  are  clay  or  fawn  colored, 
speckled  with  black  scales.  The  hind-wings  are  somewhat  lighter, 
with  blackish  veins  and  darker  margins. 

Life  History. — There  are  two  or  three  broods  a  year.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  larval  stage.  The  moths  first  appear  in 
early  spring.  The  female  lays  from  ten  to  fifteen  eggs  at  a  time 
near  the  unfolded  bases  of  the  leaves  of  grass.  One  female  may 


FIQ.   219. — The  western  corn-root  worm,  egg,  larva,  pupa,  imago.     (After  Forbes.) 

lay  seven  hundred  eggs.  Ten  days  are  required  for  hatching  and 
from  three  to  four  weeks  for  the  larvae  to  become  full  grown. 
When  mature,  the  caterpillars  enter  the  ground,  transforming  into 
pupae,  and  the  adult  moths  emerge  in  two  weeks  and  immediately 
lay  eggs  for  the  next  generation. 

Injury. — As  their  name  indicates,  these  caterpillars  frequently 
travel  in  large  numbers  in  search  of  food.  They  feed  entirely  at 
night,  and  whole  fields  of  corn  or  other  grain  may  be  destroyed 
before  their  presence  is  realized.  Grasses  form  their  favorite  food, 
and  the  heads  of  grasses  are  frequently  cut  off.  Various  garden 
crops  are  also  injured.  Clover,  however,  appears  to  be  almost 


ARMY  WORM 


205 


FlU.  220. — The  erratic  array  worm,  caterpillars,  motha,  and  pupa.     (Lugger.) 


206 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 


immune;  it  is,  however,  eaten  if  found  in  the  line  of  march.  Figure 
220  illustrates  a  closely  allied  form. 

Control. — Various  parasitic  two-winged  and  four-winged  flies 
attack  it.  Barriers  may  be  constructed  to  check  its  march.  These 
are  described  in  connection  with  another  form  of  army  worm, 
and  also  in  connection  with  remedies  advised  for  chinch  bugs. 

Deep  fall  plowing  and  thorough  harrowing  will  help  to  destroy 
hibernating  larvse.  Where  safe  and  feasible,  burn  the  grass  along 
fence  rows  and  hedges  or  waste  places  where  larvse  normally  live. 
A  strip  four  feet  wide  across  their  line  of  march,  dusted  or  sprayed 
with  Paris  green  or  other  arsenical  poison,  may  be  effective. 
When  gathered  in  furrows  plowed  to  check  their  march,  they  may 


FIG.   221. — Wire  worm  and  "click  beetle 


be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  pure  kerosene  or  crude  petroleum, 
or  straw  may  be  placed  over  them  and  burned.  Whatever  remedy 
or  remedies  are  chosen  by  the  farmer,  prompt  action  is  necessary 
in  order  to  save  certain  crops. 

Wire  Worms. — The  adults  are  known  as  click  beetles  (Fig. 
221)  or  snapping  beetles,  from  the  fact  that  if  they  are  placed  upon 
their  backs  they  recover  their  normal  position  by  a  quick  contrac- 
tion of  muscles,  causing  the  forceful  moving  of  the  thorax  upon 
the  abdomen,  which  is  accompanied  by  a  clicking  sound.  They 
are  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long.  They  are  brown, 
brownish  gray,  or  black  in  color.  Their  larvse,  called  "wire 
worms,"  are  slender,  cylindrical,  hard,  shining  brown  or  yellow 
grubs,  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long  (Fig.  222). 


WIRE  WORMS 


207 


Habits. — Native  sod  or  old  pasture  land  is  the  natural  home 
of  these  insects,  and  for  the  first  two  years  after  sod,  crops  should 
be  chosen,  whenever  possible,  which  are  not  attractive  to  wire 
worms.  The  worst  damage  occurs  in  the  second  year  after  planting 
grass  land  in  grain,  and  it  is  believed  that  from  three  to  five  years 
are  required  for  the  life  cycle  of  the  various  species.  The  last 
year  of  the  larval  stage  is  passed  in  a  small  cell,  where  it  transforms 
to  a  pupa. 

Injury. — There  are  many  species  of  these  insects  (Elateridce) . 
They  attack  a  large  variety  of  crops.  The  seed  of  corn  suffers, 

as  does  also  the  seed  of  cot-     j.—  ^^^••r""' ^i 

ton  and  young  cotton  plants. 
Young  wheat  plants,  pota- 
toes, turnips,  young  corn, 
and  many  garden  and  farm 
crops  are  attacked.  The 
worst  damage  occurs  in  the 
case  of  corn. 

Control.  —  Suitable  crop 
rotations,  early  fall  plowing, 
and  thorough  cultivation  are 
recommended.  As  a  rule, 
legumes  are  not  injured  by 
these  insects.  It  is  therefore 
wise  to  include  a  legume  with 
the  rotation.  Land  should 
not  be  allowed  to  lie  in  a 
grass  crop  several  years.  On 
a  small  scale  when  occurring 
in  kitchen  gardens,  these 
grubs  can  be  trapped  by 
pieces  of  potato  put  on  short  sticks  and  buried  near  plants  that 
are  threatened.  Summer  fallowing,  where  possible,  is  desirable, 
for  it  keeps  all  growth  which  might  serve  as  food  off  the  field. 
Any  farm  practice  which  is  practical  and  which  will  stimulate  early 
growth  is  recommended.  This  enables  plants  to  better  withstand 
attack.  For  example,  the  early  planting  of  corn  in  the  southern 
states,  followed  by  frequent  cultivation,  is  good.  Corn  should 
not  be  planted  two  years  in  succession  on  the  same  ground,  par- 
ticularly if  the  field  is  infested.  Corn  or  other  grain  crop  following 
sod  is  likely  to  suffer  from  wire-worm  attack. 


FIG.   222.— Wire  worms.      (Enlarged.) 


208  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

Southern  Corn  Root  Worm,  Bud  Worm,  or  Drill  Worm.*— The 

larva  of  this  beetle  (Diabrotica  12-punctata  Oliv.)  is  particularly 
injurious  to  corn  in  the  South.  Plants  are  weakened  and  die  from 
its  attack.  There  are  probably  three  or  four  generations  in  the 
southern  states.  Eggs  are  laid  at  the  base  of  the  plant  and  hatch 
in  a  few  days.  The  grubs  at  once  burrow  into  the  stalks,  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground  or  just  below  it.  Even  if  an  infected  plant 
does  not  die,  it  will  not,  in  all  probability,  produce  marketable  ears. 

Control. — Intelligent  crop  rotation  and  fall  plowing  are  the 
only  practical  remedies.  In  rotating  crops,  cotton  may  follow  or 
precede  corn,  as  may  most  of  the  grasses  and  many  vegetables. 
Since  this  insect  attacks  curcubits,  such  as  melons,  squash,  pump- 
kins, and  cucumbers,  they  should  be  kept  out  of  such  rotation. 
It  also  attacks  beans,  and  hence  these  should  be  prohibited  in 
any  rotation  plan.  An  excessive  amount  of  seed  in  each  hill  would 
probably  insure  the  proper  maturing  of  some  of  the  stalks.  Late 
planting  and  the  draining  of  bottom  lands  used  for  corn  are 
recommended. 

The  Angoumois  Grain  Moth. — This  moth  (Sitotroga  cerealella 
Oliv.)  is  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long.  It  is  brownish  or  buff 
colored  with  fringed  wings.  Its  grub  is  white  and  somewhat 
smaller.  The  original  infestation  occurs  in  the  field,  where  there 
may  be  as  many  as  three  generations.  These  generations  are 
continued  in  the  corn  crib,  granary,  or  seed-house.  The  larvae 
in  infested  kernels  are  brought  in  with  the  harvested  grain. 

Injury. — In  different  parts  of  the  country,  notably  in  the  South, 
stored  corn  and  other  grains  are  infested  with  the  larvae  of  this 
moth.  Its  work  is  first  made  apparent  by  the  appearance  of  tiny 
holes  in  the  kernels,  and  the  entire  contents  of  the  kernel  may  be 
destroyed,  thus  rendering  it  useless  for  seed  or  market. 

Control. — -Corn  with  the  husk  on  is  not  so  liable  to  be  attacked. 
Hence,  corn  husked  late  in  the  season,  after  the  advent  of  cold 
weather,  and  stored  in  cribs  will  suffer  but  little.  Corn  and  other 
grains,  however,  stored  in  seed-rooms  or  in  bins  early  in  the  season 
may  deteriorate  during  fall  and  winter,  owing  to  the  continued 
work  of  this  pest.  Such  grain  should  be  watched,  and  upon  the 
first  appearance  of  the  pest  or  upon  indications  of  its  presence, 
the  grain  should  be  fumigated  twice,  or,  if  necessary,  three  times, 
at  intervals  of  two  weeks.  Use  six  pounds  of  bisulfid  of  carbon 

*  See  page  218,  under  insects  attacking  truck  crops;  also  page  217,  rice 
insects. 


CORN  BILL  BUGS 


209 


to  every  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space,  because  this  insect 
requires  intensive  fumigation.  (See  fumigation  methods,  Chapter 
VI.) 

Corn  Bill  Bugs,  or  Curlew  Bugs. — These  are  weevils  or  snout 
beetles,  and  are  of  wide  distribution.  One  species  is  slate  colored, 
about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long.  Another  is  only  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  long  and  black  in  color  (Fig.  223).  In  a  general  way  the 
life  history  of  the  many  species  is  the  same. 

Life  History. — After  hibernating  in  rubbish  they  lay  their  egg 
usually  on  the  roots  of  rushes  or  sedges.  Grubs  or  larvae  hatched 
from  these  eggs  are  white,  with  brownish  or  blackish  heads. 


Fia.   223. — Two  different  species  of  corn  bill  bugs. 

Injury. — They  often  injure  corn,  particularly  if  it  is  planted  on 
low,  sedgy  land,  by  eating  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant,  thus  caus- 
ing the  elliptical  holes  seen  when  the  corn  leaves  are  unfolded 
(Fig.  224).  A  southern  form  of  bill  bug  is  restricted  in  its 
range  to  the  more  southern  states. 

Control. — Early  planted  corn  in  the  South  (March  and  April) 
shows  less  injury  than  the  same  crop  when  planted  later.  Rota- 
tion of  crops,  generous  fertilization,  good  drainage,  late  summer 
or  early  fall  and  winter  plowing,  are  all  advised  as  methods  of 
control.  Plowing,  in  the  case  of  grass  land  or  recently  cleared 
14 


210  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

lowland,  is  an  important  measure.  It  is  well,  however,  not  to 
follow  sod  or  newly  cleared  swamp  land  with  corn,  but  to  plant 
flax,  potatoes,  or  other  truck  crops  the  first  year.  Swamp  or  grass 
land  infected  with  bill  bugs  may  be  burned  over. 

The  Corn  Ear-worm. — The  caterpillar  of  this  moth,  which 
belongs  to  the  family  of  cut-worms,  is  also  known  as  the  tomato 
fruit-worm,  tobacco-bud  worm,  cotton  boll  worm,  etc.  (Heliothis 
obsoleta  Fab.).  It  gives  rise  to  a  dull  olive-green  or  yellowish 

moth,  about  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  long.  The  caterpillars  them- 
selves are  variable  in  color;  they 
are  generally  striped,  but  the 
ground  color  may  be  light  green 
or  rose  color  or  brown  or  almost 
black.  When  full  grown  they 
are  nearly  one  and  one-half 
inches  long. 

Life  History. — The  moth  lays 
eggs  for  the  first  brood  on  corn, 
peas,  beans,  or  almost  any  avail- 
able food  plant.  In  from  three  to 
five  days  these  eggs  hatch  and  the 
caterpillars  of  the  early  broods 
attack  the  corn  when  it  is  about 
knee-high.  They  feed  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves.  It  requires 
two  and  one-half  weeks  for  them 
to  reach  full  size,  at  which  time 
they  burrow  from  two  to  five 
inches  in  the  soil,  at  the  base  of 

FIG.  224. — Details   of    injury  to    corn    plant  the     plant.       The     pupa     is     four- 
by  bill  bugs.  „  f, ,  .  ,       ,  ,  .     . 

fifths  of  an  inch  long,  shining 

reddish  brown  in  color,  and  it  gives  rise  to  the  moth  in  about  two 
weeks,  making  its  complete  cycle  in  warm  weather  in  something 
over  one  month.  It  may  have  three  broods  in  favorable  lati- 
tudes. Winter  is  passed  in  the  pupal  stage. 

Injury. — The  caterpillars  of  the  second  and  third  generations 
feed  upon  the  silk  of  the  corn  ears,  and  eat  out  the  kernels  at  the 
end  of  the  cob,  furnishing  favorable  conditions  for  moulds  which 
may  do  further  injury. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  annual  damage  in  the  United  States 


WHITE  GRUBS 


211 


(See 


from  this  insect  alone  is  something  like  fifty  million  dollars, 
page  223,  under,  cotton  insects.) 

Control. — Land  should  be  plowed  in  the  late  fall  in  order  that 
the  pupae  may  be  turned  up  to  be  subjected  to  the  variations  in 
weather,  and  where  it  is  practicable  and  hi  line  with  good  farming 
the  land  should  be  harrowed.  The  early  plantings  of  corn  gener- 
ally escape  injury,  since  corn  passes  the  silking  stage  before  the 
moths  of  the  second  brood  appear.  Caterpillars  of  the  first  brood 
may  be  killed  by  applying  a  soray  of  arsenate  of  lead — two  pounds 


FIG.  225. — May  beetle  or  "June  bug";  larva  or  white  grub  pupa  and  adult.     (After  Linville 

and  Kelly.) 

to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  This  will  not  injure  the  plant  tissue. 
Better  still,  powdered  lead  arsenate  may  be  dusted  into  the  funnel 
of  the  young  plants.  Spraying  the  silk  with  a  mild  poison  is  now 
being  tried  with  some  success  in  killing  the  young  caterpillars  of 
the  second  and  third  broods.  Dusting  the  young  silk  with  poison 
is  sometimes  tried  successfully. 

White  Grubs. — These  destructive  grubs  sometimes  feed  on  the 
roots  of  corn.  For  the  life  history  and  an  account  of  injury,  see 
page  135,  under  insect  pests  of  berries  and  grapes. 

Sod  land  is  the  natural  home  of  this  insect.  It  should  be 
plowed  early  in  the  fall  to  destroy  the  pupae  and  tender  adults. 


212  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

Crop  rotation  is,  of  course,  advisable,  as  is  also  pasturing  with 
hogs.  Figure  225  illustrates  the  different  stages;  and  two  eggs, 
much  enlarged,  are  shown  in  Figure  226.  These  eggs  are  laid  in  sod. 
The  Stalk-borer  (Papaipema  nitela  Gn.). — This  moth  lays 
its  eggs  in  the  autumn  upon  ragweed,  dock,  and  other  plants  which 
are  normally  the  food  of  its  larvae.  The  young  larvae  climb  to  the 
leaves  and  first  mine  small  galleries  in  the  leaves.  When  the  leaves 
are  riddled,  they  work  down  the  bases  and 
enter  the  stalks.  After  one  plant  is  de- 
stroyed, the  worm  may  migrate  some  dis- 
tance and  attack  another.  Infested  plants 
wilt  above  the  point  of  injury.  This  pest 
is  sometimes  noticed  in  corn  and  is  entered 
as  a  corn  pest. 

FIG.  226.  —  Eggs   of   May         Control.  —  Clean    farming    is    the    best 
method  of  control.     Weeds  in  the  vicinity 

of  the  garden  should  be  destroyed  by  removal  and  burning  in 
early  spring.  The  insect  has  many  parasitical  enemies,  and  the 
injury  is  largely  local  in  nature.  Infested  plants  should  be 
promptly  destroyed  where  practicable,  to  prevent  the  migration 
of  the  worm  to  another  plant  and  thereby  increase  the  damage. 
Little  trouble  will  be  experienced  in  fields  that  are  clean. 

TURNIP    INSECTS 

Field  and  garden  turnips  are  frequently  infested  with  plant 
lice.  No  practical  remedy  is  available,  as  kerosene  emulsion  can- 
not easily  be  sprayed  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  Parasites 
help  to  keep  them  in  check.  The  cabbage  maggot  is  also  a 
turnip  pest. 

BARLEY,  TIMOTHY,  RYE,   AND    GRASSES 

These  crops  are  all  injured  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  in- 
sects described  under  other  heads  and  in  all  cases  the  treatment 
is  practically  the  same  as  that  already  given.  See  corn  and  small 
grains. 

On  timothy  one  frequently  finds  the  false  chinch  bug  (Trapc- 
zonotus  nebulosus  Fab.),  often  mistaken  for  the  true  chinch  bug, 
since  it  has  the  same  bedbuggy  odor.  It  also  resembles  it  some- 
what in  coloration  and  belongs  to  the  same  family.  Timothy  is 
rather  seriously  injured  by  this  bug,  which  is,  generally  speaking, 
a  feeder  upon  weeds. 


TWO  ONION  MAGGOTS 


213 


INSECT  PESTS  OF  SUGAR  BEETS 

Flea  Beetle  (Disonycha  xanthomelcena  Dalm.). — This  is  a 
small  black  flea  beetle  which,  with  its  larva,  eats  holes  in  the  leaves 
of  beets.  The  adults  hibernate,  laying  eggs  on  the  crown  of  the 
plant  in  the  spring.  Plants  so  affected  may  be  dusted  or  sprayed 
with  arsenate  of  lead. 

INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  ONION 

Onion  Thrips. — A  very  small  insect  belonging  to  the  order 
Thysanoptera  (Thrips  tabaci  Lind.). 

Description. — Adults  and  larvae  eat  the  epidermis  of  onion 
leaves,  causing  them  to  wilt,  turn  white,  and  die. 


FIG.  227. — The  onion  maggot. 


FIG.  228. — Tritoxa  flexa. 


Control. — Tobacco  extracts  afford  the  best  spray  for  this  pest. 
Three-quarters  of  a  pint  of  nicotine  sulfate  in  one  hundred  gallons 
of  water,  with  four  or  five  pounds  of  soap  added,  is  recommended 
by  the  Cornell  Station.  Three  sprayings  should  be  given  at  inter- 
vals of  four  or  five  days.  Weeds  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow 
about  the  edges  of  the  field. 

Two  Onion  Maggots. — One  of  these  maggots  (Pegomyia  cepa- 
rum  Bouche)  (Fig.  227)  is  a  common  pest  of  the  onion,  causing  the 
leaves  to  yellow.  As  a  result  of  its  attack,  the  plant  generally 
dies.  Tritoxa  flexa  (Fig.  228)  gives  rise  to  a  maggot  which  may 
also  work  in  onions. 

Control. — Old,  infected  fields  should  not  be  used  for  onions; 
rotate  the  crop  and  thus  avoid  this  enemy.  The  poison  spray 


214 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 


recommended  for  cabbage  maggot,  page  232,  can  be  well  used 
against  onion  maggots,  which  closely  resemble  cabbage  maggots 
in  appearance  and  life  history. 

INSECTS    AFFECTING   HOPS 

The  Hop  Plant  Louse  (Phorodon  humuli  Schr.). — The  hop 
louse,  which  was  introduced  from  Europe  about  the  time  of  the 
Civil  War,  is  light  green  in  color.  The  summer  is  passed  on  the 
vine  and  both  winged  males  and  females  migrate  to  plum  trees  in 
the  fall,  where  wingless  females  are  produced  and  fertilized  by  the 
males.  Eggs  are  then  deposited  upon  the  twigs  of  plum  and  in 
axils  of  buds.  The  "  stem-mothers "  hatch  from  these  eggs  in  the 
spring,  giving  rise  to  two  or  three  broods  of 
wingless  viviparous  females  (Fig.  229)  before 
winged  migrants  are  produced.  The  mi- 
grant flies  to  the  hops  and  continues  to 
bring  forth  females  asexually  until  the  fall. 
In  warm  parts  of  the  country  it  has  been 
shown  that  this  louse  may  remain  the  entire 
year  on  the  hop,  and  some  may  stay  on  the 
plum  during  the  summer. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  a  general  way 
this  aphis  follows  the  same  general  rule,  as 
regards  reproduction,  that  is  observed  in 
connection  with  other  plant  lice.  For 
further  information  on  the  reproduction  of 
In-  plant  lice,  see  page  14. 

Injury. — This  is  probably  the  most  seri- 
ous pest  of  hops.  The  hop  plant  louse  not  only  draws  the  sap 
from  the  vines,  but  by  exuding  a  "honey  dew,"  which  drops  to 
the  leaves  below,  coats  the  surface  of  the  leaves  with  a  glistening 
film,  which  affords  an  excellent  medium  for  the  growth  of  a  fungus, 
giving  to  the  vines  a  dark,  blighted  appearance. 

Control. — Where  this  pest  is  abundant,  spraying  with  whale-oil 
soap,  quassia  chips,  or  with  tobacco  extract  gives  relief  if  done 
thoroughly  and  before  the  lice  become  too  numerous.  After  the 
leaves  are  curled  as  a  result  of  their  attack,  it  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  hit  them  with  a  spray.  A  solution  of  quassia  chips  is  made 
by  soaking  eight  pounds  of  chips  in  sufficient  water  to  cover  them, 
for  a  few  days;  then  boil  for  about  one  hour;  add  one  hundred 
gallons  of  water  and  five  pounds  of  whale-oil  soap.  If  the  latter 


FIG.       229.  —  Hop-plant 
louse,    female.     (From 
sect  Life.") 


RICE  WATER  WEEVIL  215 

cannot  be  obtained,  soft  soap  may  be  used.  Nicotine  sulfate,  one 
part  to  three  thousand  parts  water  and  four  pounds  of  whale-oil 
soap  in  every  one  hundred  gallons  of  spray,  is  effective.  Fish-oil 
soap  may  also  be  used  in  place  of  whale-oil  soap,  if  the  latter  is  not 
procurable. 

Red  Spider  (Tetranychus  gloveri  Bks.). — Brownish,  shrivelled, 
and  dropping  leaves,  or  spotted,  discolored,  and  imperfect  cones, 
on  hops  indicate  the  presence  of  a  small  mite  called  red  spider. 
The  loss  occasioned  by  this  pest  may  run  as  high  as  fifty  dollars 
per  acre.  The  adult  and  eggs  of  this  species  are  found  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves.  The  winter  is  passed  on  vegetation  adjoining 
the  fields.  Reproduction  is  rapid  and  injury  to  plants  severe. 

Control. — Fall  plowing  and  doing  away  with  weeds  and  other 
vegetation  which  offers  winter  food  and  shelter  should  be  prac- 
ticed. Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  weeds  at  the  edges 
of  fields.  The  sprays  recommended  for  the  hop  aphis  are  advised 
for  the  control  of  this  pest,  particularly  the  use  of  nicotine  sulfate 
with  soap.  Several  applications  should  be  made.  A  soap  solution 
alone,  consisting  of  one  pound  of  soap  to  two  gallons  of  water,  is 
also  effective  if  used  at  the  very  first  appearance  of  the  insects. 

This  is  also  a  cotton  insect.     (See  page  221.) 

RICE   INSECTS 

Rice  Water  Weevil  or  Rice  Root  Maggot  (Lissorhoptus  simplex 
Say). — The  adult  weevil  is  gray  in  color  and  only  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  long.  It  may  be  seen  swimming  either  on  the  surface 
or  below.  The  eggs,  barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  are  deposited 
upon  the  roots  or  in  the  mud.  The  larvae  or  maggots,  according 
to  Hood,  are  found  in  the  rice  fields  in  from  one  to  three  weeks 
after  turning  on  the  water.  Two  broods  may  appear  in  one  season. 
The  winter  is  passed  in  the  adult  stage  (Fig.  230). 

Injury. — This  is  the  principal  insect  enemy  of  rice  plantations  ; 
it  also  attacks  wild  rice,  feeding  as  a  larva  on  the  roots,  at  which 
time  the  least  injury  is  inflicted  on  the  plant.  The  adult  snout 
beetles  feed  on  the  leaves.  The  vitality  of  the  plant  is  thus  weak- 
ened and  its  bearing  qualities  impaired.  After  attack  the  leaves 
turn  yellow  and  the  plant  wilts.  In  addition  to  rice,  this  weevil 
is  known  to  feed  upon  water  lilies  and  other  aquatic  plants,  and 
possibly  upon  a  few  grasses.  Rice  growing  in  running  water  does 
not  suffer. 

Control, — Draining  the  rice  field  completely  will  kill  the  larvae. 


Fio.  230. — The  rice  water- weevil:  a,  rice  plant  showing  injuries;  b,  scars  made  by  larva 
on  section  of  root;  c,  section  of  rootlet  showing  feeding  scars;  d,  water  line;  e,  e,  e,  roots 
severed  by  larva;  /,  injured  leaf;  ;',  enlarged  section  of  injured  leaf;  g,  adult  beetle,  dorsal 
view,  much  enlarged;  h,  antenna;  i,  larva  side  view,  much  enlarged;  j  and  A;,  details  of  struc- 
ture of  larva.  (Tucker,  Circ.  152,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


STORED  PEANUTS  217 

The  ground  so  drained  should  be  allowed  to  dry.  This  should  be 
done  before  a  large  number  of  the  plants  have  become  weakened. 
Tucker  (U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Circular  152)  recommends 
alternate  flooding  and  drying.  Freeing  ground,  by  cultivation,  of 
all  weeds  and  grasses,  and  doing  away  with  depressions  and  dead 
furrows,  is  desirable. 

Rice  Stalk  Borer,  or  "White  Blast."— The  caterpillar  of  this 
insect  (Chilo  plejadellus  Trinck)  bores  in  the  rice  stem.  This 
attack  causes  the  head  of  the  infected  plant  to  die  and  become 
light  colored,  hence  the  term  "white  blast." 

Control. — It  is  recommended  that  one  should  burn  over  the 
fields  in  whiter,  destroying  all  volunteer  rice,  weeds,  etc.,  on  the 
edges  of  the  field.  If  this  is  not  practical,  cut  all  volunteer  weeds 
and  rice  close  to  the  ground,  taking  them  away  from  fences,  and 
burning  them  in  a  safe  place. 

Rice  Grub  (Chalepus  trachypgnus  Burm.). — The  adult  insect 
is  shiny  black,  two-thirds  of  an  inch  long.  The  larva  is  white. 
Overflowing  is  recommended  as  the  best  remedial  measure. 

Corn  Root  Worm. — J.  B.  Garrett,  of  Louisiana,  says  he  has 
seen  whole  fields  of  rice  ruined  by  the  southern  corn  root  worm 
(Diabrotica  12-punctata).  See  page  240  for  a  discussion  of  this 
insect.  Drowning  out  by  flooding  is  recommended  for  this  pest. 

Enemies  of  Stored  Rice. — Attacks  on  stored  rice  are  made  by 
the  rice  weevil  (see  page  347)  and  other  mill  and  warehouse  insects. 
All  of  these  are  controlled  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  fumigation. 
Rice  held  in  cold  storage  will  escape  attack.  Termites  or  white 
ants  (Termes  flavipes)  are  said,  by  Garrett,  to  sometimes  attack 
stored  rice. 

PEANUT  INJURIES  DUE  TO  INSECTS 

Stored  Peanuts. — Many  of  the  tender  shells  of  peanuts  are 
broken  by  machine  handling  and  by  the  workmen  climbing  over 
stored  sacks.  This  invites  the  attack  of  the  Indian  meal  moth, 
described  under  mill  insects,  page  349.  One  or  more  of  the  flour 
beetles,  saw-tooth  grain  beetles,  and  others  also  attack  stored 
peanuts. 

These  insects  all  yield  either  to  the  "heating  method"  or  fumi- 
gation. The  heating  method  consists  in  tightly  closing  all  openings 
in  a  storeroom  or  warehouse  and  keeping  the  temperature  at  from 
120  to  125  degrees  F.,  but  not  above  the  latter  figure,  for  eight  or 
ten  hours.  When  this  method  is  not  available,  fumigation  with 


218  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

hydrocyanic  acid  gas  or  with  bisulfid  of  carbon  may  be  employed. 
(See  page  61.) 

A  species  of  aphis  works  on  the  roots  of  peanuts.  This  calls  for 
crop  rotation ;  the  same  land  should  be  used  for  peanuts  only  once 
in  four  or  five  years.  (U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  356.) 

INSECTS  ATTACKING  TOBACCO 

Southern  Tobacco  Worm. — This  sphinx  moth  (Phlegethontius 
sexta  Johan.)  is  perhaps  the  most  destructive  insect  with  which 
tobacco  growers  have  to  contend.  In  the  larval  stage  it  is  a  green 
worm  with  seven  oblique,  whitish  lines  on  each  side.  It  is  about 
two  inches  long  when  full  grown.  On  the  posterior  end  of  the 
body  is  a  prominent  horn.  It  pupates  slightly  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  It  emerges  as  a  brownish  moth  with  a  few  white 
dots  at  the  base  of  the  front  wings.  There  are  two  broods.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  pupal  stage. 

The  Northern  Tobacco  Worm. — This  closely  resembles  the 
above  species  and  has  practically  the  same  life  history  and  yields 
to  the  same  treatment.  In  the  caterpillar  stage  it  is  a  voracious 
feeder  and  destroys  an  enormous  number  of  plants.  The  two 
insects  cause  an  annual  loss  of  nearly  nine  hundred  thousand 
dollars  in  the  southern  states. 

Enemies. — Several  insect  parasites  attack  tobacco  worms, 
and  the  common  skunk  eats  both  larval  and  pupal  forms.  The 
caterpillars  are  also  attacked  by  fungous  and  bacteriological 
diseases. 

Control. — Three  sprayings  with  arsenicals,  preferably  arsenate 
of  lead,  or  dusting  the  plants  with  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  is 
recommended.  When  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  is  used  it  should 
be  applied  in  the  early  morning,  when  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew. 
It  will  be  effective  until  washed  off  by  frequent  or  copious  rains. 
All  traces  of  this  insecticide  on  leaves  at  harvest  time  should  be 
removed  by  spraying  with  water  after  sunset.  Picking  by  hand 
may  be  practiced  where  help  is  abundant  and  cheap.  Hand-picking 
among  growers  is  perhaps  more  popular  than  treatment  with 
arsenicals. 

Bud  Worm,  Cotton  Boll-worm,  or  Corn  Ear-worm. — In  the 
South  this  moth  sometimes  lays  its  eggs  in  the  buds  of  tobacco, 
the  worm  feeding  upon  the  tender,  unopened  leaves.  When  treat- 
ment is  necessary,  dusting  the  buds  with  cornmeal  poisoned  with 
Paris  green  has  been  found  most  effective.  About  two  teaspoon- 


THE  "  SUCK  FLY  " 


219 


fuls  of  Paris  green  should  be  mixed  with  a  quart  of  cornmeal. 
(See  also  page  210.) 

The  "Suck  Fly." — In  spite  of  its  name,  this  insect  (Dicyphus 
minimus  Uhl.)  (Fig.  231)  is  a  true  bug,  and  has  in  recent  years 
become  quite  troublesome  to  tobacco  growers. 


FIG.    231. — The  so-called  "suck  fly":  o,  b,  c,  nymphs   in  different  stages;  d,   adult  female;  «, 
head  and  beak  from  side;  all  figures  much  enlarged.      (L.  O.  Howard,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

Life  History. — The  insects  are  found  on  both  sides  of  the  leaves, 
affecting  the  under  side  of  the  nymph  or  imperfect  stage.  The 
eggs  are  said,  by  Quaintance,  to  be  deposited  singly  within  the 
tissue  of  the  leaf  and  they  require  about  four  days  for  hatching. 
The  entire  cycle  of  one  generation  is  completed  in  about  fifteen 
days. 


220  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 

Injury. — Leaves  of  the  second  crop  of  tobacco  are  injured  by 
this  pest  sucking  the  sap  from  the  leaf  tissue,  causing  it  to  yellow 
and  rendering  it  nearly  worthless. 

Control. — Tobacco  extracts  applied  by  spraying  both  upper 
and  lower  surface  of  the  leaves  appear  to  give  the  best  results.  The 
strength  to  be  used  is  given  on  the  containers.  Early  application 
at  the  very  first  appearance  of  the  insects  is  desirable. 

Tobacco  Leaf-miner  or  "Split- worm." — The  adult  of  this 
insect  (Phthorimola  operculella  Boisd.)  is  a  small  moth  whose 
wings  measure  about  one-half  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip.  The  female 
lays  its  eggs  upon  the  leaves,  and  the  small  caterpillars  bore  into 
the  body  of  the  same,  causing  discoloration  and  sometimes  a  mis- 
shapen leaf.  The  gray  blotches  due  to  the  miner  in  leaf  tissue  have 
been  thought  by  some  growers  to  be  a  disease  and  have  been 
referred  to  as  "  weather  rot."  The  caterpillars  do  not  remain  con- 
stantly between  the  upper  and  lower  surface  of  the  leaf,  but  may 
emerge  and,  after  crawling  about  the  surface,  enter  at  a  new  place. 

Control. — Destruction  of  all  leaves  made  worthless  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  insect  is  advised.  Destruction  of  all  weeds  in  the 
spring,  particularly  horse  nettle,  upon  which  the  insect  feeds,  will 
do  much  to  reduce  its  numbers. 

Tobacco  Flea  Beetle. — This  small  brownish  beetle  (Epitrix 
parvula  Fab.)  is  abundant  in  almost  all  tobacco-growing  districts 
in  the  United  States.  When  abundant  its  attacks  cause  the  leaf 
to  exhibit  small  dry  spots,  which  grow  larger,  and  eventually  the 
leaf  becomes  full  of  small  holes.  These  afford  entrance  to  fungous 
diseases.  Eggs  are  laid  at  the  base  of  the  plant,  and  the  young 
grubs  feed  upon  the  roots.  Plants  of  the  nightshade  family  are 
attacked  also. 

Control. — All  weeds,  especially  those  belonging  to  the  night- 
shade group,  should  be  kept  off  the  ground.  Particular  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  edges  of  the  field,  fence  rows,  etc.  Clean 
cultivation  is  most  important. 

Cut-worms. — Several  species  of  cut-worms  attack  tobacco. 
These  are  generally  well  controlled  by  the  use  of  a  poisoned  bran 
mash  made  by  mixing  Paris  green  and  bran  until  the  latter  is 
decidedly  green  in  color ;  then  add  water  and  sweeten  with  molasses 
or  syrup  just  before  using.  This  bait  may  be  placed  in  a  ring 
around  each  plant  and  a  short  distance  from  the  plant,  or  small 
amounts  placed  at  frequent  intervals  among  the  plants.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  place  this  bait  too  close  to  a  plant,  for  bring- 


RED  SPIDER  221 

ing  the  Paris  green  into  contact  with  the  roots  through  the  agency 
of  rains  should  be  avoided.  The  bait  is  best  placed  in  the  field 
at  sundown  in  order  that  it  may  not  become  dried  by  the  sun  before 
night,  which  is  the  chosen  feeding  time  of  cut-worms. 

Other  insects  which  at  times  injure  tobacco  are:  The  cabbage 
plusia,  grasshoppers,  white  flies,  and  crickets.  Naked  snails  or 
"slugs"  are  at  times  injurious.  The  so-called  cigarette  beetle 
works  on  stored  tobacco  and  is  combated  by  fumigation  with  car- 
bon bisulfid. 

INSECTS    AFFECTING    THE    COTTON    PLANT 

The  Cotton  Boll-weevil. — Undoubtedly  this  dark-gray  snout 
beetle  (Anthoncmus  grandis  Boh.)  is  one  of  the  most  destructive 
insects  in  America.  Introduced  from  Mexico  about  1891,  it  has 
gradually  spread  over  nearly  the  entire  cotton  belt  in  the  southern 
states,  causing  annually  a  loss  of  several  million  dollars.  As  the 
name  indicates,  it  works  in  the  bolls  of  cotton,  in  which  it  lays  its 
eggs.  Several  broods  occur  in  a  season  (Fig.  232). 

Control. — Of  all  remedies  and  methods  of  control  which  entomol- 
ogists and  growers  have  tried,  the  best,  if  not  the  only  dependable 
means,  consists  in  early  planting,  or  in  the  use  of  early  varieties,  or 
in  both  factors.  These  are  coupled  with  the  use  of  fertilizers  and 
thorough  cultivation  in  an  effort  to  hasten  the  maturing  and 
ripening  of  the  crop.  Plants  should  be  placed  at  least  four  feet 
apart.  This  allows  the  sunlight  to  reach  infested  squares  which 
have  fallen  to  the  ground,  and  kills  some  of  the  young  larvae  therein. 
The  burning  or  plowing  under  of  infested  plants  before  winter 
will  destroy  the  quarters  where  the  adults  try  to  hide  for  winter. 
Intelligent  crop  rotations  are  also  recommended. 

Red  Spider  (Tetranychus  bimaculatus  gloveri  Bks.  Harvey). 
— Although  this  is  called  "red  spider,"  the  females  may  vary  in 
color  from  red  to  yellow  or  green  or  dark  brown.  In  the  South 
the  whiter  is  passed  on  weeds  or  cultivated  plants,  notably  the 
violet,  the  mites  migrating  thence  to  young  cotton  plants. 

Injury. — This  mite,  which  goes  under  different  specific  names 
and  attacks  a  large  variety  of  plants,  'may  cause  an  immense 
amount  of  damage  to  cotton  (Figs.  233  and  234)  (ree  related  spe- 
cies, page  215).  In  1912  it  occasioned  the  loss  of  about  three 
hundred  and  ninety-four  thousand  dollars  in  South  Carolina  alone. 
Basing  estimates  upon  these  figures,  it  is  probable  that  "during 
a  severe  red  spider  year  the  Southeast  may  suffer  a  loss  of  two 


FIG.  232. — The  cotton  boll-weevil:  1  and  2,  adults;  3,  egg;  4,  grub  at  beginning  of 
second  stage,  about  three  days  old;  5,  full-grown  grub  about  ten  days  from  the  egg;  6  and  7, 
two  views  of  the  pupa;  8,  adult  with  spread  wings;  figures  3  and  4,  enlarged  about  20  diam- 
eters; all  other  figures  enlarged  10  diameters.  (Hinds,  Ala.  Bull.,  188.) 


COTTON  BOLL-WORM  223 

million  dollars  through  the  ravages  of  this  pest"  (U.  S.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  735). 

Control. — Destruction  of  weeds  in  the  winter,  and  spraying  or 
destroying  beds  of  violets  where  the  mites  occur  if  such  beds  are 
near  cotton,  are  recommended.  Wide  spacing  of  cotton  plants  and 
pulverizing  the  surface  of  the  ground  which  renders  migration 
difficult  are  advised.  Spraying  compounds  which  have  been  found 
efficient  when  applied  to  weeds  and  other  plants  are  as  follows : 

(a)  One  pound  arsenite  of  soda  in  twenty  gallons  of  water. 
This  is  very  effective,  but  it  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  care  should  be 
taken  that  animals  do  not  have  access  to  poisoned  plants. 

(6)  One  ounce  of  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  two  gallons  of  water. 
This  is  also  a  deadly  poison. 

(c)  One  gallon  of  flour  paste  in 
twelve  gallons  of  water. 

Whatever  spray  is  employed, 
there  should  be  two  applications, 
with  an  interval  of  seven  or  eight 
days  between  them.  Figure  235 
illustrates  a  convenient  spraying 
outfit  for  treating  weeds. 

The  Cotton  Worm.— The  moth 
producing  this  worm  (Alabama  ar- 
gillacea  Hubn.)  is  migratory.  Win- 
tering  in  the  most  southern  districts 

it  moves  northward  in  the  Spring.    It     Dearly  all  leaves,  squares  and  bolls  have 

\  been  shed.     (McGregor,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

is  an  interesting  fact  that  it  has  of 

recent  years  been  found  in  states  far  north  of  the  cotton  belt.  The 
caterpillar  feeds  upon  the  cotton  leaves.  The  pupal  stage  is 
passed  upon  the  leaf.  The  insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  adult 
condition.  There  are  several  broods. 

Control. — Dust  the  leaves  of  cotton  in  the  early  morning  with 
powdered  arsenate  of  lead. 

Cotton  Boll-worm. — The  caterpillar  of  this  moth  (Helioihis 
obsoleta  Fab.)  eats  both  leaves  and  boll.  It  has  several  broods. 
It  also  attacks  tomatoes  and  corn.  (See  page  210  for  full  discussion.) 

Control. — Late  fall  plowing,  early  spring  planting,  and  crop 
rotation  are  recommended.  Dusting  leaves  with  powdered  arse- 
nate of  lead  when  the  young  larvae  first  appear  is  also  advised. 
(See  page  210,  under  corn  insects.) 


224  INSECTS  AFFECTING  FIELD  CROPS 


•if 


FIG.  234. — A  severe  example  of  red-spider  work  in  a  cotton  Leld.    (McGregor    U   S   Farmer 

Bull.,  735.) 


FIG.  235.— Portable  barrel  pump  for  application  of  arsenate  or  other  herbicide  to  weedy 
borders.     (U.  S.  Farmers'  Bull.,  735.) 


QUESTIONS  225 

Other  Insects  Injurious  to  Cotton. — Other  insects  attacking 
cotton  are  the  cotton  wire-worm,  the  cotton  root-louse,  the  cotton 
stainer,  page  182,  and  the  pink  boll-worm.  The  last  is  a  newly 
introduced  pest,  which  bids  fair  to  be  very  injurious. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  Give  the  life  history  of  the  Hessian  fly  and  methods  of  control. 

2.  Describe  and  give  the  life  history  and  control  measures  for  the  chinch  bug. 

3.  Discuss  the  wheat-head  army  worm  and  compare  with  the  common  army 

worm. 

4.  Give  habits,  life  history,  and  remedial  measures  for  grasshoppers. 

o.  Name,  in  order  of  relative  importance,  the  insects  affecting  alfalfa  and 
give  life  history  and  remedies  for  the  first  three  named. 

6.  What  are  wire  worms  and  why  are  they  especially  destructive  and  hard 

to  combat? 

7.  What  are  three  of  the  most  injurious  enemies  of  corn  in  the  South? 

8.  Give  life  history  of  the  hop  plant  louse. 

9.  Name  two  leading  pests  of  rice.     Give  life  history  and  control  measures 

for  each. 

10.  Name  three  important  insects  affecting  cotton  and  give  remedial  measures 

for  the  same. 

11.  Do  the  sarr.e  with  tobacco  insects. 

12.  Describe  and  give  the  life  history  of  theAngoumois  grain  moth.     How  is 

it  injurious,  and  what  means  of  control  are  recommended? 

13.  Which  crop  is  the  greatest  sufferer  from  the  chinch  bug,  wheat  or  corn? 

14.  What  insects  are  most  destructive  to  field  crops  in  your  section? 


15 


CHAPTER  XIII 

INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS  AND  THE  VEGE- 
TABLE GARDEN 

IT  is  difficult  to  sharply  separate  truck  crops  from  field  crops. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  corn  insects  are  treated  in  the  preceding 
chapter  on  insects  affecting  field  crops.  Insects  attacking  onions, 
tobacco,  turnips,  and  beets  are  likewise  considered  there.  Irish 
potato  and  sweet  potato  insects  are  treated  in  the  present  chapter. 

Potato  Insects 

The  Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — This  well-known  beetle  (Lep- 
tinotarsa  decemlineata  Say)  and  its  larvae  are  so  familiar  that  they 
need  no  description.  The  adult  beetles  hibernate  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  appearing  on  the  plants  in  the  spring,  soon  after 
reaching  the  potato  plants.  They  lay  their  eggs  on  the  under  sides 
of  the  leaves.  These  eggs  hatch  in  something  less  than  a  week, 
the  larvae  passing  through  four  stages  and  requiring  about  three 
weeks  to  complete  their  growth.  They  pupate  below  the  surface 
of  the  soil  and  occasionally  upon  the  leaves.  The  pupal  stage 
requires  from  one  to  two  weeks.  The  egg-laying  period  lasts  about 
five  weeks,  and  the  broods  consequently  overlap  each  other. 
We  therefore  find  all  stages  upon  the  plant  at  the  same  time 
(Fig.  236) .  The  female  beetle  lays  from  five  hundred  to  one  thou- 
sand eggs,  these  eggs  being  placed  in  masses  of  from  nine  to  thirty- 
five  eggs  each. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  the  so-called  "old-fashioned 
potato  beetle"  (Epicauta  sp.)  sometimes  occurs  on  potatoes. 

Control. — The  young  larvae  can  be  killed  by  a  spray  of  one 
pound  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water.  As 
they  get  older,  however,  it  is  more  difficult  to  poison  them,  and  the 
adults  are  particularly  resistant.  Therefore,  in  order  to  make  the 
poison  more  effective,  it  is  advised  to  use  one  pound  of  Paris 
green,  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead,  and  fifty  gallons  of  water 
for  all  forms.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  preferable  to  Paris  green  alone, 
since  potato  foliage  is  susceptible  to  injury.  Several  applications 
of  the  spray  during  the  season  may  be  necessary ;  it  should  be  used 
226 


COLORADO  POTATO  BEETLE 


227 


whenever  the  beetles  are  observed  to  be  destructive.  The  old-time 
remedy  of  knocking  the  beetles  into  a  pan  in  which  there  is  a  little 
kerosene  is  practicable  for  a  few  hills.  In  treating  potatoes  for 
fungous  diseases  and  potato  beetles  at  the  same  time,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  arsenate  of  lead  be  combined  with  commercial  lime- 
sulfur  diluted  in  volume  to  one  part  lime-sulfur  hi  eighty  parts  of 


t*TWi-' 


f.-M,- 


FIG.   236. — The  Colorado  potato  beetle,  different  stages ;  also  two  blister  beetles.     (Lugger.) 

water,  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty  gallons 
of  the  lime-sulfur  solution.  Or  use  one  pound  Paris  green  in 
twenty-five  gallons  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Potato  beetles  are  subject  to  Tachinid  parasites,  and  one 
or  more  bugs  feed  upon  the  larvse.  The  quail  and  the  rose- 
breasted  grosbeak  appear  to  be  fond  of  this  unpleasant  insect, 


228 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 


The  Garden  Flea-beetle. — These  small,  shiny,  black  beetles 
(Epitrix  sp.)  are  frequently  seen  upon  potato  vines  and  are  hard 
to  control.  They  attack  not  only  potatoes  but  also  tomatoes, 
egg-plants,  beans,  peas,  clover,  etc.  Injury  appears  first  as  white 
spots  on  the  upper  sides  of  the  leaves. 

Control. — Plants  thoroughly  sprayed  with  arsenicals  are  appar- 
ently not  injured  as  much  as  untreated  plants,  although  this 
beetle  is  quite  resistant  to  poisons.  Air-slaked  lime  dusted  on 


FIG.   237. — External     view     of     potato,  FIG.   238. — Details   of   work   of   potato- 

showing  work  of  potato-tuber  moth.  (After  tuber  moth:  a,  section  of  tuber,  showing  eye 
Chittenden,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.)  and  eggs  deposited  about  it;  6,  egg  in  out- 

line; c,  side  view  of  egg;  d,  f,  vines  of  larvze 
in  potato;  a,  natural  size;  b,  c,  greatly  en- 
larged; d,  somewhat  reduced.  (After  Ililey 
and  Howard.) 

infested  plants  we  find  to  be  quite  effective.  This  flea-beetle 
hides  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves,  and  one  can  knock  many 
of  them  off  into  a  pan  in  which  there  is  a  little  kerosene  by  striking 
the  plants  with  a  brush  or  paddle.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  good 
repellent.  The  plants  should  be  sprayed  with  this  when  a  few 
inches  high. 

The  Potato  Tuber  Moth  (Phthorimcea  opercuklla  Zell). — The 
adult  is  a  grayish  moth  with  a  spread  of  wing  of  about  one-half 


IMPORTED  CABBAGE  WORM  229 

inch.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  leaves  or  stems,  and  the  larvae 
feed  within  the  tissues,  also  boring  into  the  tuber,  where  the  most 
serious  harm  is  caused.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  injury  occurs 
both  in  the  field,  while  the  tubers  are  yet  in  the  ground,  and  while 
they  are  in  storage  (Figs.  237  and  238). 

Injury. — The  quality  and  consequently  the  salability  of  the 
potato  crop  in  some  sections  is  at  times  seriously  affected  by  this 
evidently  introduced  pest,  particularly  if  the  potato  market  in  the 
early  fall  is  slow,  necessitating  the  holding  of  the  tubers  by  growers. 
The  insect  occurs  in  California  in  abundance,  in  Washington, 
Texas  and  other  southern  and  western  states,  and  appears  to  be 
spreading  northward.  It  is  an  enemy,  but  not  a  serious  one,  of 
tobacco  also.  (See  tobacco  insects.) 

Control. — Hogs  turned  into  an  infested  field  after  removal  of 
the  crop  will  consume  practically  all  tubers  left  therein,  with  the 
contained  larvse.  Infected  potato  plants,  as  well  as  weeds  and  all 
volunteer  plants,  should  be  burned.  As  in  the  case  of  many  other 
insects,  crop  rotation  is  advised.  Avoid  having  potatoes,  tobacco, 
tomatoes,  or  egg-plants  follow  each  other,  since  they  are  all  host 
plants  of  this  insect. 

Stored  potatoes,  if  infected,  should  be  fumigated  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  or  bisulfid  of  carbon,  using  the  latter  at  the  rate 
of  three  pounds  for  every  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  air  space, 
and  exposing  to  fumes  in  an  air-tight  house,  or  in  bins,  or  in  air- 
tight barrels  for  twenty  to  twenty-four  hours.  Use  precautions 
against  fire.  This  fumigation  should  be  repeated  two  weeks  later. 

In  fumigating  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  the  cubical  content 
of  building,  room,  or  receptacle  must  be  determined  and  the  dosage 
based  upon  that.  (See  page  61.)  An  expert  should  be  consulted. 

CABBAGE  INSECTS 

The  Imported  Cabbage  Worm. — The  adult  of  this  insect  (Pontia 
rapce  Sch.)  is  the  familiar  white  cabbage  butterfly.  The  female 
has  two  black  spots  on  each  fore-wing — the  male  but  one  (Fig. 
239,  a  and  6).  Both  sexes  have  a  black  spot  on  the  anterior  mar- 
gins of  the  hind-wings.  The  caterpillars  are  velvety  green,  about 
one  or  one  and  one-half  inches  long.  They  have  a  faint  yellow 
stripe  down  the  center  of  the  back  and  a  row  of  yellow  spots  on 
both  sides. 

Life  History. — The  butterflies  are  seen  early  in  the  spring  and 
summer,  flying  over  the  fields  and  depositing  their  yellowish  eggs 


230  INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 


* 
-KT 


l\ 


iv   C 


sra  ,?• 


, 


#'    '  I 

?^ 


FIG.  239. — Stages  of  the  imported  cabbage  butterfly,  a,  b,  c,  d;  zebra  caterpillar  and  moth, 
e,  f;    the  cabbage  plutella,  g,  h,  i,  j,  and  its  parasite,  k.     (After  Lugger.) 


IMPORTED  CABBAGE  WORM 


231 


on  the  leaves  of  any  food  plant  available.  It  requires  about  a 
week  for  the  eggs  to  hatch,  and  the  larvae  grow  rapidly.  It  requires 
about  two  weeks  for  them  to  attain  their  full  growth.  They  then 
transform  into  chrysalids,  which  are  suspended  by  threads  of  silk 
from  the  leaves  of  food  plants.  The  chrysalid  changes  from  being 
greenish  at  first  to  a  light  brown.  In  one  or  two  weeks  the  butter- 
flies emerge.  In  the  South  there  are  from  one  to  four  or  five  broods 
each  season.  The  last  generation  passes  the  winter  in  the  chrysalid 
form  among  the  old  stalks  and  rubbish  in  the  field. 

Injury. — This  insect  eats  large,  irregular  holes  in  the  leaves 
of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  related  plants,  and  disfigures  the  heads 
of  cabbage  and  cauliflower  by  deposits  of  excrement. 


FIG.  240.— Cabbage 


maggot:  a,  larva;  6,  pupa;  c,  adult  female;  d,  head  of  male;  e,  antennae. 
Hair  lines  show  actual  sizes.     (After  Riley.) 


Control. — Cabbages  and  cauliflower  are  not  susceptible  to 
injury  by  Paris  green;  hence,  Paris  green  may  be  used  upon  cab- 
bages for  this  insect  as  strong  as  four  or  five  pounds  to  fifty  gallons 
of  water  without  any  injury  whatever  to  the  plant.  A  little  soap, 
however,  should  be  added  to  the  water  to  enable  it  to  spread  over 
the  leaf;  otherwise  the  spray  runs  off  the  leaf  like  water  off  of  a 
duck's  back.  There  is  absolutely  no  danger  to  human  beings  on 
account  of  spraying  cabbages.  In  the  first  place,  little  or  none  of 
the  poison  gets  inside  the  head,  and  it  has  been  demonstrated 
satisfactorily  that  a  person  would  have  to  eat  several  bushels  of 
sprayed  cabbages  at  one  sitting  in  order  to  obtain  enough  poison 


232 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 


to  cause  serious  results.  This  is  self-evident.  Cauliflower,  when 
not  headed  out,  may  be  sprayed  with  Paris  green.  These  worms 
may  also  be  reached  by  the  use  of  poison  bran  mash,  such  as  is 
prepared  for  cut-worms.  White  hellebore  may  be  used  as  a  poison, 
if  timid  gardeners  fear  Paris  green.  As  additional  measures 
children  may  be  hired  at  a  nominal  sum  to  pick  the  caterpillars 
from  the  plants  or  to  catch  the  white  butterflies  over  a  cabbage 
field.  This  pest  is  extensively  parasitized. 


FlQ.  241. — Female  cabbage  maggot  fly,  much  enlarged.     (After  Slingerland.) 

Figure  239  also  illustrates  the  zebra  caterpillar  and  its  moth, 
and  the  cabbage  plutella  and  parasite. 

The  Cabbage  Maggot. — The  adult  insect  is  a  small  fly  (Pego- 
myia  brassicce  Bouche)  resembling  the  house-fly,  but  it  is  smaller. 

Life  History. — Eggs  are  laid  abundantly  during  the  spring, 
either  upon  the  stalk  or  upon  the  ground  close  to  the  crown  of 
the  plant  or  upon  the  roots  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground 
— one  egg  being  generally  laid  in  a  place.  One  fly  deposits  a  large 
number  of  eggs,  flying  from  one  plant  to  another.  The  egg  stage 
lasts  from  three  to  five  days,  and  the  life  of  the  maggot  is  of  about 


CABBAGE  MAGGOT  233 

three  weeks'  duration.  The  larval  skin  hardens  at  the  end  of  that 
period,  and  the  insect  pupates  either  close  to  the  stalk  or  two  inches 
away.  This  stage  lasts  about  two  weeks.  The  fly  has  two  or  more 
broods  (Figs.  240  and  241). 

It  attacks  the  cabbage  and  cauliflower,  also  turnips  and 
radishes,  but  cauliflower  is  its  preferred  food.  The  maggot  tun- 
nels in  the  roots  of  the  plants,  causing  those  attacked  (Fig.  242) 
to  wilt  and  usually  to  die. 

Control. — Clean  cultivation  is  helpful.  Crop  rotation  is  desir- 
able. Cabbages  and  cauliflower  in  a  breezy  location  are  not  so 


FIG.   242. — A  cabbage  plant  wilted  down,  as  result  of  attacks  of  cabbage  maggot. 

liable  to  suffer  as  those  sheltered  from  the  breeze.  Plants  hi  sandy 
soil  appear  to  suffer  most.  Seed  beds  in  cold  frames  invite  attacks 
of  the  fly,  and  young  plants  are  often  affected  when  transplanted; 
cold  frames  containing  the  cabbage  or  cauliflower  plants  should 
therefore  be  covered  with  screens  in  order  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  the  fly.  Old  cabbage  or  cauliflower  stalks  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  remain  in  the  field  over  winter.  Tarred  paper  disks  are 
in  some  localities  placed  around  the  crown  of  the  plant  when  it  is 
set  out,  but  these  are  not  always  practicable  or  effective  (Fig. 
243).  Since  the  adult  flies  are,  like  the  house-fly,  attracted  to 
sweet  substances,  recent  experiments  indicate  that  plants  may  be 
sprayed  with  a  sweetened  poisoned  liquid,  thus  destroying  them 


234  INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 

before  many  of  them  have  laid  their  eggs.     Two  different  recipes 
for  this  poison  spray  are  as  follows: 

(a)  3  ounces  arsenate  of  lead,  2^  pounds  brown  sugar,  4  gallons  water. 
(6)  1/5  ounce  arsenite  of  soda,  ^  pint  cheap  molasses,  1  gallon  water. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  spray  all  the  plants  in  a  field.  If  an  occa- 
sional row  is  treated,  sufficient  attraction  is  offered.  Late  planted 
cabbages  are  not  so  seriously  affected  as  are  early  cabbages :  Hol- 
land cabbage  appears  to  be  exempt.  Applications  to  the  roots  are 
rarely  very  effective. 

The  Cabbage  Aphis  or  Cabbage  Louse. — On  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  of  cabbage  and  other  members  of  the  mustard  family 


:    •  

FIG.  243. — Tarred  paper  disks  applied  to  plants:  a,  correctly  applied;  6,  incorrectly. 

are  frequently  found,  in  summer,  large  colonies  of  these  lice  (Aphis 
brassicce  Linn.).  They  are  yellowish.  Winged  individuals  appear 
from  time  to  time  and  fly  from  one  plant  to  another.  The  average 
length  of  life  of  each  generation  is  about  twelve  days,  and  each 
wingless  female  gives  birth  to  about  forty  young.  In  the  fall 
winged  males  and  females  appear  which  mate  and  thus  produce 
eggs  for  the  next  season's  generations. 

Injury. — Plants  are  weakened  by  a  constant  drain  upon  the 
sap  and  are  thus  made  unfit  for  use,  even  if  they  reach  a  market- 
able age. 

Control. — Practice  clean  cultivation  and  the  destruction  of  all 
refuse  of  the  year's  crop  in  the  fall.  The  curling  of  leaves  protects 
the  lice  and  prevents  successful  spraying,  for  any  spray  used  must 


THE  STRIPED  FLEA-BEETLE  235 

actually  strike  each  aphid  in  order  to  destroy  it.  Wild  mustard 
and  shepherd's  purse  in  the  field  should  be  destroyed.  Young 
plants  in  the  seed  bed  are  often  infested  before  transplanting; 
hence  the  necessity,  as  in  the  case  of  the  cabbage  maggot,  for 
screening  the  cold  frames  with  fine  screens  or  cheesecloth.  Young 
plants,  if  infested,  may  be  dipped  at  their  tips  in  a  weak  solution 
of  soap  in  order  to  destroy  the  lice  upon  the  leaves.  If  spraying 
is  resorted  to,  nicotine  sulfate  may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  one  part 
of  the  extract  to  sixty-four  parts  of  water.  Or  use  whale-oil  soap 
at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  six  gallons  of  water.  Or  use  any  laundry 
soap  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  three  gallons  of  water.  These 
lice,  like  other  species,  are  subject  to  extensive  attacks  by  parasites. 

The  Harlequin  Cabbage  Bug  (Murgantia  histrionica  Hahn). 
—This  is  a  shiny  black  or  deep  blue  insect  with  brilliant  red  or 
orange  markings.  It  is  about  one-half  inch  long  and  is  more  or 
less  flattened.  It  is  sometimes  called  " terrapin  bug"  on  account 
of  its  shape  and  markings.  The  young  bugs  resemble  the  older 
ones  closely,  but  have  no  wings  (Fig.  244) .  These  bugs  will  prob- 
ably never  be  very  injurious  in  the  northern  tier  of  states,  since 
they  are  particularly  a  southern  pest. 

Life  History. — They  feed  on  any  of  the  mustard  family  of 
plants,  but  prefer  cabbage.  The  adults  live  over  winter  in  old 
cabbage  stumps  and  in  weeds  and  rubbish  left  on  the  field,  and 
emerge  in  the  spring.  Eggs  are  laid  on  kale  or  wild  mustard  or 
other  wild  plants  of  the  mustard  family  to  which  cabbage,  radishes, 
and  turnips  belong.  There  are  three  or  more  broods. 

Control. — When  once  established,  they  are  difficult  to  combat. 
Old  stalks  and  leaves  should  be  cleared  up  to  remove  from  the 
field  hibernating  quarters.  A  few  piles  of  brush  may  be  left  to 
attract  the  adults  in  the  fall  that  they  may  be  destroyed.  A  trap 
crop  of  kale  or  mustard  may  be  planted  early  in  rows  through  the 
field  that  is  intended  for  cabbage.  The  bugs  prefer  kale  to  cabbage, 
and  these  trap  rows  can  be  sprayed  when  covered  with  bugs, 
using  pure  kerosene.  The  nymphs  or  young  bugs  may  be  killed 
with  a  whale-oil  soap  solution.  Use  one  and  one-half  or  two  pounds 
of  soap  to  a  gallon  of  water;  or  use  one  part  stock  solution  of  kero- 
sene emulsion  in  six  parts  of  water.  Sprays,  however,  are  not  to 
be  depended  upon  in  this  connection.  The  importance  of  killing 
the  hibernating  brood  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

The  Striped  Flea-beetle  (Phyllotreta  vittata  Fab.).— This  is 
a  striking  insect,  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long  or  less.  It  is  black, 


236 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 


with  a  broad,  wavy,  yellowish  stripe  on  each  wing-cover.  Like 
other  flea-beetles,  it  is  very  active  and  is  hard  to  catch.  The  larval 
form  is  found  in  the  roots  of  young  cabbage  plants.  The  female 
lays  her  eggs  in  openings  in  the  root  of  the  cabbage  or  other  crucif- 
erous plants,  near  the  crown.  When  the  larva  is  mature  it  trans- 
forms into  an  earthen  cocoon  close  to  the  plant,  and  in  a  few  days 
the  beetle  emerges. 

Injury. — While  the  beetle  eats  the  leaves  of  turnips,  cabbages, 
etc.,  and  is  sometimes  found  on  strawberries,  its  chief  injury, 
perhaps,  is  inflicted  through  mining  into  cabbages,  turnips,  and 
radishes.  It  may  occur  in  such  numbers  as  to  become  a  serious 
pest,  causing  considerable  injury. 


FIG.  244. — The  harlequin  cabbage  bug, 
different  stages.  (After  Riley,  U.  S.  Bu. 
Ent.) 


FIG.   245.— The  striped  flea-beetle.      (U. 
Bu.  Ent.) 


Control. — The  adults  may  be  controlled  by  dusting  with  helle- 
bore. It  is  also  advisable  to  dust  with  air-slaked  lime,  soot,  or 
ashes  on  foliage  when  beetles  are  present.  The  beetle  and  grub 
are  shown  in  figure  245. 

The  Zebra  Caterpillar  (Mamestra  picta  Harr.). — This  cater- 
pillar is  conspicuous  on  account  of  its  striking  colors.  When  full 
grown  it  is  two  inches  or  more  in  length.  The  body  is  yellow,  with 
a  black  stripe  down  the  back  and  another  down  each  side.  The 
head  is  red.  The  first  generation  feeds  in  early  summer  and  the 
second  in  the  fall.  The  species  hibernates  in  the  pupal  stage. 

It  attacks  cabbage,  spinach,  celery,  and  peas. 

Control. — Hand-picking  is  the  usual  remedy,  but  it  may  be 
controlled  by  spraying  with  strong  solutions  of  arsenate  of  lead 
or  Paris  green  (Fig.  239,  /).  (See,  also,  colored  plate.) 


THE  STRIPED  CUCUMBER  BEETLE 


237 


The  Diamond-back  Moth  (Plutella  maculipennis  Curtis). — 
This  is  the  insect  whose  caterpillar  riddles  cabbage  leaves  with 
small  holes.  It  is  found  upon  the  plants  along  with  the  green  cab- 
bage worm.  The  moth  which  lays  eggs  producing  these  cater- 
pillars is  yellowish  above,  and  its  wings,  which  are  kept  folded, 
are  turned  up  slightly  at  the  tips.  The  wings  also  bear  a  long 
fringe.  The  lower  part  of  the  folded  wings  is  bronze  brown.  The 
caterpillar  is  one-third  of  an  inch  long  and  pale  green  hi  color. 
It  tapers  toward  each  end,  and  is  quite  active.  These  caterpillars 
pupate  in  small  cocoons  of  delicate  silk  lace-work,  and  the  brown- 
ish pupa  may  be  seen  through  the  thin  walls  of  the  cocoon  (Fig. 
239).  In  winter-time  the  cocoons  are  to  be  seen  on  old  cabbage 
stalks  in  the  field  or  on  stored  cabbages. 

Control. — The  remedies  advised  for  the  green  cabbage  worm 
also  control  this  pest. 

INSECTS  ATTACKING  CUCUMBERS,  MELONS  AND  RELATED  PLANTS 

The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle. — This  insect  is  destructive  in 
both  the  larval  and  adult  stages.  The  beetle  (Diabrotica  vittata 
Fab.)  is  slightly  less  than  one-half  of  an  inch  hi  length,  and  is 


FIG.   246.— The  striped  cucumber  beetle.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

black  with  yellow  stripes  (Fig.  246).  It  lays  its  yellowish  eggs  in 
clusters  upon  the  root  of  the  plant,  and  the  grub  feeds  on  the  root 
within  the  ground.  The  pupal  period  is  passed  in  the  soil,  and  the 
adults  winter  in  rubbish  and  waste  in  the  fields.  Frequently  one 
finds  small  mites  upon  these  beetles,  but  evidently  the  mites  use 
the  beetles  as  a  means  of  transportation,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
they  appreciably  reduce  their  numbers. 


238  INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 

Injury. — The  adults  feeding  on  plants  opens  the  way  for  infection 
by  fungous  diseases.  The  presence  of  the  larvae  on  the  roots  or  in 
the  stems  is  shown  by  the  wilting  of  the  plant.  Both  cucumbers 
and  melons  are  attacked. 

Control. — Two  tablespoonfuls  of  tobacco  extract  in  one  gallon 
of  water,  poured  about  each  plant  at  the  rate  of  a  cupful  to  each 
hill,  is  excellent  if  done  any  time  before  the  plant  is  seriously 
weakened  by  the  larvae.  This,  as  applied,  costs  from  forty  to  sixty 
cents  for  each  one  hundred  gallons.  It  should  be  done  every 
four  or  five  days,  at  the  first  appearance  of  the  beetles.  The  appli- 
cation acts  also  as  a  stimulant  for  the  plants.  It  is  also  advisable 
to  protect  young  cucumbers  and  melons  as  soon  as  up  with  inex- 
pensive covers  of  cheesecloth  placed  over  the  plants  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  adult  beetles.  These  net  covers 
should  be  used  as  long  as  possible,  that  the  plants  may  have  a 
good  start. 

Some  planters  sow  the  seed  in  rows  rather  thickly,  and  thin 
after  the  worst  damage  is  over.  The  planting  of  an  excess  of  seed, 
afterward  thinning,  is  common  practice.  Air-slaked  lime  dusted 
on  the  young  plants  is  excellent.  This  should  be  done  while  the 
leaves  are  moist  with  dew,  and  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  the 
dust  is  washed  off.  Arsenate  of  lead,  four  or  five  pounds  to  a 
barrel  of  water,  affords  a  good  spray.  All  old  vines  should  be 
gathered  and  destroyed  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  off  the  ground. 
This  also  applies  to  all  refuse.  The  beetles  are  thus  deprived  of 
food  and  hibernating  quarters,  and  this  indirectly  causes  the 
death  of  many. 

The  above  remedies  are  applicable  to  melons  and  cucumbers 
as  well  as  squashes  and  pumpkins. 

The  Melon  Louse  (Aphis  gossypii  Glov.). — The  wingless  form 
of  this  louse  is  light  yellowish  or  olive  or  even  black  in  color.  It 
is  about  one-fifteenth  of  an  inch  long.  It  is  found  on  the  under 
surface  of  leaves,  which  it  causes  to  curl  (Fig.  247).  Tender- 
growing  shoots  are  favorite  points  of  attack.  Winged  individuals 
are  developed  whenever  the  lice  are  compelled,  from  lack  of  food 
or  removal  of  crop,  to  seek  new  feeding  grounds. 

Control. — Detect  infested  plants  early  and  destroy  them. 
Spray  under  the  surface  of  leaves  with  tobacco  extract.  Fumigate 
with  nicofume  paper,  using  one  sheet  to  a  plant,  in  an  enclosed 
space.  Or  fumigate  with  bisulfid  of  carbon,  using  one  teaspoonful 
to  each  cubic  foot  of  space,  Plants  may  be  enclosed  within  a 


THE  CUCUMBER  FLEA-BEETLE 


239 


light  frame  covered  with  oiled  muslin.    The  under  side  of  leaves 
may  be  dusted  with  pyrethrum  powder. 

The  Cucumber  Flea-beetle  (Epitrix  cucumeris  Harr.). — These 
tiny  beetles  occur  throughout  the  United  States  and  are  found 
upon  tomatoes  and  potatoes,  as  well  as  cucumbers,  melons,  and 
allied  plants.  When  found  in  potatoes,  the  grubs  mine  in  the 


Fid.  247. — Melon  leaves  curled  by  attacks  of  lice.     (Chittenden,  U.  S,  Bu.  Ent.) 

tubers.  The  principal  injury  is  done  to  the  foliage  by  the  young 
beetles,  just  after  it  is  up  in  the  spring.  The  leaves  are  riddled. 
A  badly  riddled  leaf  appears  as  if  hit  by  a  charge  of  bird  shot, 
though  sometimes  the  surface  is  eaten  off  at  each  feeding  place. 
The  beetles  are  black,  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  long  (Fig.  248). 
They  hibernate  over  winter  in  leaves  and  rubbish,  and  emerge 


240  INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 

in  the  spring  and  lay  eggs  on  the  roots  of  common  weeds  of  the 
nightshade  family.  The  larvae  of  this  brood  live  in  the  roots  of 
these  plants  and  later  transform  to  beetles  and  attack  foliage. 

Control. — Bordeaux  mixture,  combined  with  Paris  green,  or 
lime-sulfur  combined  with  arsenate  of  lead,  are  perhaps  the  best 
sprays,  acting  as  repellents,  largely.  Dusting  with  air-slaked 
lime  is  helpful. 

The  Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica  or  Southern  Corn-root  Worm. 
— These  yellowish-green  beetles  (Diabrotica  12-punctata  Oliv.), 
with  twelve  black  spots  on  the  back  and  a  black  head,  are  prac- 
tically omnivorous.  They  feed  on  a  large  variety  of  foliage  and 
flowers,  of  forage  and  garden  crops. 

Injury. — The  larvae  or  grubs  feed  upon  the  roots  of  melons, 
cucumbers  and  allied  plants.  Plants  frequently  die  as  a  result  of 
attack  upon  their  roots.  In  the  South  this  is 
known  as  the  "Southern  Corn-root  Worm," 
and  it  attacks  the  stalk  of  corn  just  above 
the  roots.  If  it  eats  to  the  center  of  the  stalk 
the  "bud"  will  die;  hence  it  is  locally  known 
as  the  "bud  worm"  (see  page  208). 

Life  History. — There  are  two  generations. 
The  beetles  are  among  the  first  insects  to  ap- 
pear in  the  spring,  and  their  life  cycle,  from 
egg  to  adult,  occupies  from  six  to  nine  weeks. 

Bu?i51t?  They  may  be  seei1  on  clover  or  alfalfa  in  the 
late  fall.  Figure  249  illustrates  the  species. 

Control  measures  are  the  same  as  for  the  striped  cucumber 
beetle. 

The  Neat  Cucumber  Moth  or  Pickle  Worm. — This  worm,  the 
larva  of  a  yellowish-brown  moth  (Diaphania  nitidalis  Cramer),  is 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  long.  It  is  greenish  or  yellowish  green  in 
color,  with  a  brown  head.  The  larva  bores  into  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  the  cucumber.  It  takes  about  two  weeks  for  a  caterpillar 
to  attain  its  full  growth;  it  then  spins  a  thin  silken  cocoon  in  a 
fold  of  the  leaf.  The  pupal  stage  requires  about  a  week,  and  the 
complete  cycle  lasts  from  three  to  four  weeks  in  midsummer. 
The  winter  is  passed  in  the  pupal  stage,  either  in  the  old  vine  left 
on  the  field  or  in  other  trash. 

Injury. — The  larvae  hatching  from  eggs  laid  on  the  blossoms 
usually  feed  in  the  blossoms,  and  six  or  more  may  be  found  in  a 
single  squash  blossom  at  one  time.  Older  caterpillars  bore  into 


THE  SQUASH  BUG 


241 


the  fruit  itself.  This  injury  to  the  fruit  causes  decay.  In  some 
localities  this  insect  is  a  serious  pest  to  cucumbers,  squashes, 
and  melons.  It  destroys  the  blossoms,  mines  the  stems,  and  bores 
into  the  ripening  fruit. 

Control. — Since  the  injury  is  worse  in  late  summer,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  plant  early  and  also  to  grow  early  maturing  varieties 
of  the  vegetables  which  this  worm  seeks.  All  litter  on  the  field, 
including  old  vines,  should  be  destroyed  after  harvest.  Since  these 
pests  prefer  to  lay  eggs  on  the  squash,  this  plant  may  be  used  as 


FIG.  249. — The    12-spotted  Diabrotica,    different   stages,    details   of   structure   and   injury. 
Hair  lines  indicate  actual  size.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

a  trap  crop,  if  melons  or  cucumbers  are  to  be  protected.  For 
example,  one  might  plant  rows  of  summer  squash  through  cucum- 
ber or  melon  fields  at  an  early  date,  planting  every  two  weeks,  so 
that  some  would  be  in  flower  during  July.  The  flowers  could  be 
collected  and  destroyed  with  the  contained  larvae  at  frequent 
intervals.  This  method  of  control  has  been  carefully  tested  and 
found  to  give  almost  complete  protection  to  muskmelons.  Arseni- 
cal sprays  are  of  little  value.  When  possible,  change  the  location 
of  plants  each  year.  Collect  and  destroy  badly  infested  fruit 
whenever  it  is  observed. 

The  Squash  Bug  (Anasa  tristis  DeG.). — The  adult  bug  is  a 
16 


242 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 


rich  brown  or  black  insect,  five-eighths  of  an  inch  long.  It  has  a 
strong  sucking  beak  and  a  small  head.  This  insect  attacks  cucum- 
bers, melons  and  squashes,  and  is  well  known  to  most  of  our  gar- 
deners (Fig.  250).  The  young,  or  nymphs,  are  grayish  to  black, 
and  cluster  in  colonies.  The  orange  or  red  eggs  are  laid  in  batches 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf.  The  adults  hibernate  over  winter 
in  the  old  vines.  One  brood  is  hatched  in  the  northern  states  and 
two  or  three  in  the  southern.  The  insect  appears  as  soon  as  the 

vines  are  up.  The  eggs  hatch  in 
a  few  days  after  being  laid.  As 
a  result  of  the  attacks  of  the 
squash  bug  leaves  curl,  turn 
brown,  and  die. 

Control. — The  egg  masses 
may  be  destroyed.  The  young 
nymphs  may  be  killed  with 
kerosene  emulsion.  Use  one 
part  of  the  stock  emulsion 
diluted  with  nine  parts  of  water 
by  volume.  The  adults  may  be 
trapped  under  bits  of  board 
where  they  hide.  The  vines 
should  be  destroyed  as  soon  as 
the  crop  is  off  the  ground,  in 
order  to  kill  the  bugs  not  yet 
matured.  Any  contact  spray  is  effective  for  adults.  Growers 
should  plant  an  excess  of  seed,  and  it  is  wise  to  protect  young 
plants  by  coverings  of  some  sort.  Early  in  the  morning,  while  still 
cool,  the  adults  are  more  or  less  sluggish  and  may  be  hand-picked. 
The  Horned  Squash  Bug  (Anasa  armigera  Say)  calls  for  the 
same  measures  of  control.  It  is  similar  in  general  appearance 
and  habits  to  the  species  above  discussed. 

INSECTS   AFFECTING   BEANS   AND    PEAS 

Bean  Aphids. — These  small  black  plant  lice  (Aphis  rumicis 
Linn.)  may  be  observed  crowded  together  in  clusters  on  the  tender 
tips  of  bean  stalks  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  They  also 
attack  dahlias,  dock,  shepherd's  purse,  pigweed,  snowball,  etc. 
Winged  forms  appear  during  the  season.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall 
around  buds  of  certain  weeds  and  shrubs.  In  the  spring  the  first 
generations  multiply  upon  these  plants  and  then  separate  to  other 


FIG.  250. — The  squash  bug;  a,  mature 
female;  b,  side  view  of  head  and  beak;  c, 
abdominal  segments  of  male;  d,  same  of 
female;  a,  twice  natural  size.  (After  Chit- 
tenden,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


BEAN  APHIDS 


243 


common  weeds,  migrating  in  May  or  June  to  beans.    Aphids  mul- 
tiply during  summer  by  giving  birth  to  living  young. 

Control. — The  usual  remedies  applicable  to  other  plant  lice 


FIG.  251. — The  bean  maggot  fly,  different  stages,  and  its  work.     (After  Lugger.) 

may  be  used  here  if  necessary.  Whale-oil  soap,  one  pound  to  five 
or  six  gallons,  is  probably  safer  than  kerosene  emulsion  or  laundry 
soap  in  the  same  proportion.  One  or  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
nicotine  sulfate  in  a  gallon  of  water  is  an  excellent  and  effective 


244  INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 

spray  for  all  lice.  It  should  be  used,  if  possible,  in  a  way  to  hit 
the  insects. 

The  Bean  Maggot  or  Bean  Fly. — These  maggots  (Pegomya 
sp.)  are  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  when  full  grown,  yellow- 
ish in  color,  blunt  at  one  end,  tapering  at  the  other.  The  change 
to  the  pupal  stage  takes  place  in  the  ground  near  the  plant  injured. 
In  about  a  week  the  perfect  fly,  which  closely  resembles  a  house- 
fly, emerges  from  the  puparium  and  works  its  way  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground  (Fig.  251). 

Injury. — This  maggot  bores  in  planted  beans,  and  works  not 
only  in  the  seed  but  in  the  stem  of  the  growing  plant  as  well,  thus 
causing  it  to  wither  and  die. 


«  2  c 

FIG.  252. — Bean  weevil  and  pea  weevil.     (After  Brehm.) 

Control. — Rotation  of  crops  and  fall  plowing  appear  to  be  the 
only  available  remedial  measures. 

The  Bean  Weevil. — This  is  a  small  robust  snout  beetle  (Bru- 
chus  obtectus  Say),  brownish  gray  in  color,  with  head  bent  at 
right  angles  to  body.  The  wing-covers  are  shorter  than  the  ab- 
domen.' Eggs  are  laid  on  the  growing  pods  in  the  field,  and  the 
grubs  enter  the  young  beans,  sometimes  several  in  one  bean. 
They  continue  their  work  in  dry  beans,  rendering  the  same  unfit 
for  seed.  This  insect  also  attacks  peas  and  occasionally  other 
seeds. 

Control. — Infested  seeds,  for  the  most  part,  float  on  the  water, 
while  sound  seeds  sink.  This  affords  a  means  of  separating  good 
from  bad  seed.  A  still  better  method  is  fumigation  of  the  seed 
with  bisulfid  of  carbon.  Place  the  seed  in  a  tight  receptacle, 


THE  ASPARAGUS  BEETLE  245 

pour  the  liquid  upon  it,  and  keep  the  receptacle  closed  for  one  or 
two  days.  No  flame  should  be  brought  into  the  vicinity  of  bisul- 
fid  of  carbon.  A  tablespoonful  of  the  liquid  used  in  a  two-quart 
jar  full  of  seed  is  effective  if  the  jar  is  closed  tightly. 

Figure  252  illustrates  both  the  bean  weevil  and  the  pea  weevil. 

The  Pea  Weevil  (Bruchus  pisorwn  L.). — This  beetle  is  similar 
in  general  appearance  and  habits  to  the  bean  weevil.  In  color  it 
is  blackish,  covered  with  soft  brown  hairs,  and  its  back  is  marked 
with  black  and  white.  The  adults  appear  in  the  field  at  blossom- 
ing time.  The  yellow  eggs  are  laid  on  the  pea  pods,  and  the  grub 
bores  through  info  the  seed.  If  undisturbed,  the  adult  may  re- 
main in  the  seed  until  spring.  The  same  remedies  as  given  for  the 
bean  weevil  are  applicable  to  this  insect  (Fig.  252). 

The  Pea  Aphis. — This  is  a  large  green  louse  (Macrosiphum 
pisi  Kalt.)  attacking  peas.  It  has  many  natural  enemies  in  the 
shape  of  parasites  and  predaceous  insects.  Since  it  passes  the 
whiter  on  clover,  it  is  suggested  that  peas,  if  possible,  be  not 
planted  near  clover.  Otherwise  control  measures  are  practically 
the  same  as  for  the  bean  aphis. 

The  blister  beetles  (page  198),  so-called  "old-fashioned  potato 
bug,"  occasionally  attack  beans  and  may  cause  serious  injury 
locally. 

INSECTS   AFFECTING   RADISHES 

Flea  beetles  of  various  species  may  justly  be  regarded  as 
enemies  of  radishes.  Their  attacks  may  be  controlled  to  some 
extent  in  the  garden  by  the  use  of  air-slaked  lime  or  ashes. 

Cabbage  Maggot. — The  chief  pest  of  the  radish  is  the  cabbage 
maggot,  which  tunnels  in  the  roots.  This  insect  has  been  de- 
scribed under  Cabbage.  The  writer  has  secured  immunity  for 
his  radishes  by  using  a  decoction  of  tobacco  stems,  and  more 
recently  by  using  nicotine  sulfate  solution,  at  the  rate  of  two 
tablespoonfuls  to  a  gallon  of  water.  This  solution  is  poured  along 
the  rows  of  plants  when  they  are  about  an  inch  or  two  high,  and 
is  repeated  once  hi  every  five  or  six  days  until  the  radishes  are 
nearly  fit  for  table  use.  Early-sown  radishes  are  not  so  liable  to 
attack  as  later  crops.  Radishes,  when  young,  may  also  be  treated 
with  the  poisonous  spray  recommended  for  the  cabbage  maggot. 

The  Asparagus  Beetle. — This  destructive  insect  (Crioceris 
asparagi  Linn.)  is  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long.  It  is  of  a  general 
bluish-black  color,  with  yellowish  wing-covers,  marked  on  the 


246 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 


edges  with  dark  blue.     The  thorax  is  red.     The  beetle  is  quite 

active  and  shifts  its  position  around  the  stem  when  disturbed. 

The  larva  or  grub  is  one- 
third  of  an  inch  long, 
grayish  or  olive  hi  color, 
with  a  shining  black  head. 
The  winter  is  passed  in  the 
adult  stage.  The  beetle 
emerges  about  the  time 
that  the  asparagus  shoots 
are  ready  for  cutting. 
Later,  eggs  are  laid  on 
these  shoots  and  on  the 
older  stems  of  the  plant. 

Injury. — The  young 
shoots  and  leafy  tips  of 
the  asparagus  are  attacked 
by  both  larva  and  adult 
(Fig.  253).  The  shoots 
are  rendered  unfit  for  use, 
and  the  injury  to  the  tips 
weakens  the  plants. 

Control. — Where  this 
pest  is  injurious,  one  may 
obtain  some  relief  by 
allowing  a  few  stalks 
to  grow  up  in  the  early 
spring  and  then  poisoning 
them  with  Paris  green  or 
ar senate  of  lead.  Air- 
slaked  lime  dusted  on  the 

larvae  will  kill  them.     Shoots  should  be  frequently  cut  for  table 

or  market. 

INSECTS   INJURING   CELERY,    PARSNIPS,    CARROTS 

The  tarnished  plant  bug  attacks  plants  of  this  group  (see  page 
84).  The  celery  tree  hopper  attacks  celery.  Remedies  for  this 
insect  are  similar  to  those  given  for  the  grape-vine  leaf-hopper 
(see  page  164).  Besides  the  three  insects  treated  under  this  head, 
others  affecting  these  crops  are  the  parsnip  web-worm  and  the 
parsnip  leaf  miner. 


FIG.  253. — The     asparagus     beetle     and     injury 
caused  thereby.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


OTHER  ENEMIES  OF  CELERY  247 

The  Carrot  Beetle. — This  is  a  brown  scarabid  beetle  (Ligyrus 
gibbosus  DeG.),  a  little  more  than  one-half  an  inch  long.  It 
works  upon  carrots,  celery,  and  parsnips,  and  also  attacks  corn, 
potatoes,  and  other  crops.  Adults  are  found  attacking  the  crown 
or  root  of  the  plant  below  the  surface.  They  are  sometimes  present 
in  large  numbers  in  a  field  of  root  crops.  The  work  may  be  nearly 
destroyed  without  injuring  the  top  of  the  plant.  The  larvae  re- 
semble in  miniature  the  familiar  "  white  grub." 

Control. — Rotation  of  crops  and  fall  plowing  are  the  standard 
remedies.  Hogs  and  chickens  allowed  to  run  in  the  infested  field 
after  the  removal  of  the  crop  will  lessen  their  numbers  materially. 
Some  success  has  been  attained  in  combating  other  members  of 
this  family  (Lachnosterna  and  allied  genera)  by  the  use  of  a  lantern 
trap,  to  which  they  are  attracted,  early  in  the  season  before  egg- 
laying  begins.  Manifestly  such  traps  would  be  of  little  service 
after  that  period. 

The  Celery  Caterpillar. — The  adult  of  this  insect  is  the  common 
black,  swallow-tailed  butterfly  (Papilio  polyxenes  Fab.).  The 
caterpillar  itself  is  green  or  yellow,  with  black  stripes,  having  re- 
tractile yellow  horns  placed  a  short  distance  back  of  the  head. 
These  horns  are  extended  when  the  caterpillar  is  disturbed.  In 
the  northern  states  the  winter  is  passed  in  the  chrysalid  (pupal) 
stage,  the  butterflies  appearing  in  May.  Eggs  are  laid  on  the  foliage 
and  hatch  in  from  four  to  nine  days.  The  young  caterpillars  are 
nearly  black,  with  a  white  band  around  the  middle  of  the  body. 
The  complete  life  cycle  requires  about  eight  weeks. 

The  caterpillars  feed  on  the  foliage  and  undeveloped  seed  of 
almost  all  umbelliferous  plants,  including  celery,  parsnip,  caraway, 
parsley,  fennel,  dill,  and  wild  carrot,  wild  parsnip,  as  well  as  the 
garden  carrot. 

Control. — Hand-picking  is  often  all  that  is  necessary.  Spraying 
or  dusting  with  arsenicals  may  be  best  for  large  areas  if  the  insects 
are  very  numerous. 

The  Carrot  Rust  Fly  (Psila  rosce  Fab.). — Celery  leaves  some- 
times turn  a  reddish  color,  due  to  the  attacks  of  this  small  insect, 
which  belongs  to  the  order  Diplera,  or  two-winged  flies.  The 
roots  are  also  discolored  by  the  maggot  which  is  often  found  in  the 
roots  of  carrots.  Clean  cultivation  after  cropping  is  recommended, 
as  well  as  rotation  of  crops.  Celery  should  not  follow  carrots. 

Other  Enemies  of  Celery. — Wire  worms  of  several  species 
sometimes  injure  celery,  as  does  also  the  tarnished  plant  bug. 


248  INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 

INSECTS  -AFFECTING    TOMATO 

Refer  to  tobacco  insects  in  the  chapter  of  field  crop  insects, 
as  several  of  the  tobacco  insects  also  attack  the  tomato.  See  also 
treatment  of  the  corn  ear-worm,  pages  210  and  218. 

The  Stalk  Borer. — More  than  one  species  of  this  genus  of  moth 
(Papaipema  sp.)  probably  bores  in  the  stalks  of  tomato,  as  well 
as  in  dahlias,  lilies,  and  other  garden  plants.  Its  eggs  are  laid  in 
the  fall  of  the  year  on  various  weeds  about  the  garden;  the  larvae 
hatch  in  the  spring,  and  first  feed  as  leaf  miners  and  then  burrow 
into  the  stalk  of  the  plant  upon  which  they  were  hatched.  They 
may  migrate  to  other  cultivated  plants.  They  pupate  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  stalk. 

Control. — Since  the  eggs  of  these  insects  are  laid  by  the  moths 
at  the  base  of  weeds,  all  weeds  in  the  garden  and  in  the  vicinity 
should  be  destroyed  late  in  the  fall  by  burning.  Further,  the  entire 
stock  of  weeds  should  be  burned  and  not  merely  the  tops.  When 
a  tomato  plant  is  infested,  it  is  shown  by  a  drooping  of  the  affected 
part  of  the  plant.  The  affected  shoot,  if  small,  may  be  cut  off, 
and  the  borer  destroyed.  If  the  worm  is  in  a  larger  stem,  a  few 
teaspoonfuls  of  bisulfid  of  carbon  may  be  injected  into  the  opening 
with  a  medicine  dropper  and  the  hole  plugged  with  cotton,  wool, 
or  soil  to  confine  the  gas.  Too  much  bisulfid  of  carbon  should 
not  be  used  on  account  of  danger  of  injury  to  the  plant  stem. 

See  also  Chapter  XIV,  page  256. 

INSECTS    ATTACKING    GINSENG 

Ginseng  is  attacked  by  white  grubs,  and  the  reader  is  advised 
to  turn  to  the  description  of  this  pest,  and  study  methods  of  pre- 
venting injuries.  (See  page  135.) 

RHUBARB    INSECTS 

A  plant  of  such  rapid,  vigorous  growth  as  the  rhubarb  is  natu- 
rally more  or  less  exempt  from  injury  on  the  part  of  insects.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  rhubarb  curculio  is  its  most  serious  enemy. 

The  Rhubarb  Curculio. — This  reddieh-brown  snout  beetle 
(Lixus  concavus  Say)  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long. 
It  injures  the  plant  by  making  food  punctures  in  the  leaf  stem 
and  sometimes  in  the  leaves.  Eggs  are  deposited  in  the  stems  of 
rhubarb  or  in  dock.  The  size  and  color  of  these  insects  make  them 
fairly  conspicuous,  and  they  may  be  hand-picked  from  rhubarb 
and  the  weed  above  mentioned. 


TORTOISE  BEETLES  AND  "  GOLDEN  BUGS  "     249 

The  Rhubarb  Flea  Beetle. — This  greenish  flea  beetle  (Psyl- 
liodes  punctulata  Mels.)  exhibits  a  preference  for  rhubarb,  but  it 
is  also  found  on  other  vegetables.  Its  presence  is  recognized 
either  by  holes  in  the  leaves  or  by  brownish-yellow  spots  on  the 
leaves.  When  necessary,  one  may  resort  to  the  usual  remedies 
for  flea  beetles.  (See  page  228.) 

INSECTS    AFFECTING    SWEET   POTATOES 

The  sweet  potato  in  most  districts  is  quite  free  from  insect 
attacks,  as  compared  to  many  other  truck  crops.  The  sweet 
potato  borer  is  perhaps  the  most  injurious  of  the  eight  or  ten 
pests  which  are  found  attacking  these  plants. 

The  Sweet  Potato  Root-borer  or  Weevil.— This  snout  beetle 
(Cylas  formicarius  Oliv.)  is  known  to  occur  in  China,  India, 
Australia,  Madagascar,  Jamaica,  and  Cuba.  It  was  probably 
first  imported  into  this  country  from  Cuba  hi  shipments  into 
Louisiana. 

It  is  a  slender  beetle,  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long.  It  some- 
what resembles  an  ant.  The  general  color  is  bluish  black,  with  the 
pro-thorax  brown. 

Injury. — The  female  eats  cavities  into  the  potatoes  or  into  the 
vine  at  its  base  and  deposits  its  eggs  therein.  The  young  larvae 
at  first  bore  into  the  vine  and  later  into  the  tubers.  The  pupal 
stage  is  passed  within  the  tuber.  Evidently  this  insect  may  con- 
tinue to  increase  and  cause  injury  even  after  the  potatoes  are 
stored. 

Control. — No  treatment  is  available  while  tubers  are  in  the 
ground.  Badly  infested  potatoes  may  be  fed  to  hogs  and  the  vines 
burned.  Growers  who  receive  potatoes  from  infested  localities 
should  fumigate  them  before  planting.  Use  either  bisulfid  of 
carbon  or  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  (See  page  61.) 

Tortoise  Beetles  and  "Golden  Bugs." — Several  species  of  these 
insects,  members  of  the  family  Cassidce,  are  fond  of  the  foliage  of 
the  sweet  potato.  Of  these,  a  very  common  form  is  the  golden 
tortoise  beetle  (Coptocycla  bicolor  Fab.),  the  common  name  of 
which  indicates  its  color.  The  black-legged  tortoise  beetle  (Cassida 
nigripes  Oliv.),  however,  is  the  largest  of  this  group  and  the  most 
injurious.  The  mottled  tortoise  beetle  (Coptocycla  signifer  Feb.) 
is  another  member  of  this  family  affecting  the  sweet  potato. 
Another  is  the  two-striped  sweet  potato  beetle  (Cassida  bivitata 
Say). 


250  INSECTS  AFFECTING  TRUCK  CROPS 

Description  and  Life  History. — All  tortoise  beetles  have  ap- 
proximately identical  life  histories.  The  adults  resemble  some- 
what minute  tortoises  in  shape.  They  originally  fed  upon  weeds, 
particularly  wild  morning  glories.  The  taste  for  cultivated  plants 
is  an  acquired  one.  The  leaves  of  the  young  sweet  potato  plants 
are  attacked,  and  frequently  the  entire  plants  are  ruined,  requir- 
ing resetting.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  stems  and  leaves.  The 
larvse  are  less  injurious  than  the  adults.  They  are  short,  bristling 
creatures,  with  the  disgusting  habit  of  heaping  their  excrement 
on  the  top  of  their  bodies  by  means  of  fork-like  appendages  on 
the  posterior  ends  of  the  abdomen  until  they  are  nearly  or  quite 
covered  and  concealed  from  view.  The  pupal  stage  is  passed  upon 
the  leaves,  and  the  beetles  hibernate  in  the  adult  stage. 

Control. — Dip  young  plants  in  a  solution  of  one  pound  of 
arsenate  of  lead  in  ten  gallons  of  water  just  before  they  are  set 
out.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  efficacious  means  of  control.  A 
pint  of  molasses  added  to  this  makes  it  adhere  better  to  the  plants. 
This  material  may  be  sprayed  upon  the  plants  when  they  are 
first  attacked. 

Cut  worms. — These  pests  cut  the  young  and  tender  plants 
shortly  after  they  are  set.  They  are  controlled  either  by  the  use 
of  poisoned  bran  mash,  described  on  page  195,  or  by  dipping  the 
plants  in  arsenate  of  lead  and  water  at  the  time  of  planting,  as 
advised  for  the  tortoise  beetles.  In  case  of  severe  attacks  both 
measures  might  be  advisable. 

Flea  Beetles. — One  or  more  species  of  this  sort  attack  young 
sweet  potato  slips.  One  should  use  the  same  remedies  as  advised 
for  tortoise  beetles.  (See  page  249.) 

Saw  Flies. — The  larvae  of  these  insects  are  the  small  slimy 
"  slugs."  They  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  true  slugs  or 
naked  snails,  which  are  mollusks.  Two  species  are  known  to  attack 
sweet  potatoes  and  feed  upon  their  leaves.  Plants  coated  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  as  previously  suggested,  would  be  immune  to 
attacks  by  this  insect. 

Other  insects  which  may  attack  sweet  potatoes  are  sweet 
potato  plume  moth,  the  cucumber  flea  beetle,  the  sweet  potato 
hawk  moth,  and,  occasionally,  crickets. 

PEPPER  PLANT  INSECTS 

The  Pepper  Weevil. — This  insect  (Anthonomus  ceneotinidus) , 
quite  injurious  in  Texas,  was  originally  introduced  into  this  coun- 


QUESTIONS  251 

try  from  Mexico.  It  works  in  the  pepper  pod,  causing  distortion 
and  rendering  it  unfit  for  food.  It  is  in  part  controlled  by  gather- 
ing and  destroying  infected  peppers  which  fall  to  the  ground. 

EGG   PLANT  INSECTS 

Three  enemies  of  egg  plants  have  already  been  described 
under  other  heads.  For  the  aphis,  see  melon  aphis,  page  238. 
For  the  potato  tuber  moth,  see  page  228;  see  also  tobacco  insects 
where  it  is  referred  to  as  " split  worm."  Potato  beetles  attack 
egg  plants  (see  page  226).  Flea  beetles  are  often  very  serious 
enemies  of  egg  plants.  These  are  described  among  the  potato 
insects. 

INSECTS   ATTACKING   OKRA 

Plant  lice,  leaf-eating  caterpillars,  leaf -hoppers,  and  a  few  other 
forms  affect  this  plant,  but  not  seriously. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  life  history  of  the  Colorado  potato  beetle. 

2.  What  is  the  best  insecticide  for  this  beetle,  and  how  applied? 

3.  What  is  the  best  treatment  for  flea  beetles  on  potatoes? 

4.  Discuss  the  potato  tuber  moth  and  give  remedial  measures. 

5.  Give  life  history  of  the  corn  ear-worm. 

6.  Give  description,  life  history,  and  remedies  for  the  imported  cabbage 

worm. 

7.  Why  is  soap  used  in  the  spray? 

8.  What  injury  is  caused  by  the  cabbage  maggot?    Describe  its  work.    What 

crops  are  affected? 

9.  WThat  are  the  best  measures  of  control? 

10.  How  should  a  cabbage  grower  treat  a  five-  or  ten-acre  field  badly  affected 

with  cabbage  aphis? 

11.  Give  life  history  of  and  control  measures  for  the  striped  cucumber  beetle 

in  both  larval  and  adult  forms. 

12.  Give    treatment    for    melon    lice. 

13.  Give  description  and  life  history  of  the  southern  corn  root-worm. 

14.  Enumerate  the  injuries  caused  by  this  insect  and  state  treatment  advised. 

15.  Give  description,  life  history  of,  and  control  measures  for  the  common 

squash  bug. 

16.  How  should  we  treat  seed  beans  or  seed  peas  if  infested  with  weevils? 

17.  Give  life  history  of  the  asparagus  beetle. 

18.  Enumerate  the  insects  attacking  celery,  parsnips  and  carrots. 

19.  Give  remedial  measures  in  each  case. 

20.  How  is  the  stalk  borer  combated  when  attacking  tomatoes? 

21.  Enumerate  the  insects  which  attack  sweet  potatoes. 

22.  Give  remedies  in  each  case. 

23.  What  insects  attack  the  pepper  plant  and  how  combated? 

24.  What  radical  difference  is  to  be  noted  between  the  treatment  of  the 

Colorado  potato  beetle  and  melon  lice?    Why? 

25.  Give  accounts  of  damage  from  insects  in  gardens  in  your  section. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  GREENHOUSE  AND  HOUSE 
PLANTS,  AND  OF  THE  FLOWER  GARDEN 

THE  growers  of  flowers  for  home  adornment,  as  well  as  the 
commercial  florist,  often  make  use  of  a  greenhouse  conservatory 
or  of  other  indoor  places  for  plants  a  part  of  the  year.  A  number  of 
insect  enemies  cause  much  trouble  to  these  plants,  either  indoors 
or  outside.  In  this  chapter  such  enemies  are  divided  into  two 
groups:  (1)  those  most  troublesome  inside,  and  (2)  enemies  of 
the  flower  garden. 

INSECTS   OF   THE   GREENHOUSE   AND    ON   HOUSE   PLANTS 

Among  the  insects  found  in  greenhouses  occur  one  or  more 
species  of  mealy  bug,  greedy  scale,  rose  scale,  white  fly,  green- 
house leaf  roller,  "red  spider/'  and  various  aphids  or  plant  lice. 
Last,  but  by  no  means  least,  are  sow  bugs  or  wood  lice.  These 
are  Crustaceans  and  not  insects. 

The  Destructive  Mealy  Bug.  —  These  insects  belong  to  the 
scale  family,  but,  unlike  most  others 
in  this  group,  can  move  about  when 
adult.  A  mealy  bug  of  this  species 
(Dactylopius  destructor  Comst.)  is  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long  and  one-twelfth 
of  an  inch  wide.  It  is  brownish  yellow 
below,  and  white  with  an  indication  of 
a  median  line  above.  A  powdery  secre- 
T  tion  covers  the  surface  of  the  body. 

^  The  segments  of  the  body  are  quite 

FlG'  "^     distinct  and  a  number  of  filaments  are 


borne  on  the  sides   (Fig.   254).      The 

male  has  two  transparent  wings,  and  has  a  wing  expanse  of  less 
than  an  eighth  of  an  inch.  The  body  is  dark  brown  and  the  eyes 
dark  red. 

Life  History.  —  The  female  begins  to  lay  eggs  before  she  is 
fully  grown.  The  eggs  are  attached  in  a  cottony  mass  at  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  abdomen.  This  egg  mass  increases  with  her 
growth.  Since  the  end  of  the  body  is  forced  upward  by  the  in- 
creased mass  of  eggs,  the  insect  finally  appears  to  be  almost  stand- 
252 


MEALY  BUG  WITH  LONG  THREADS 


253 


ing  on  her  head.  When  the  young  hatch  they  spread  in  all  direc- 
tions over  the  plant,  generally  settling  along  the  midrib  or  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves,  or  in  the  forks  of  the  young  twigs.  They 
form  closely  packed  colonies  at  first,  and  at  this  stage  there  is 
only  a  slight  covering  of  the  powdery  secretion  referred  to  above. 

Injury. — The  mealy  bug  is  a  very  troublesome  pest  in  green- 
houses, for  it  attacks  almost  all  plants.  However,  when  the 
greenhouses  are  fumigated  at  regular  intervals,  these  insects  are 
rarely  troublesome. 

Control. — Nicotine  sulfate  or  whale-oil  soap  may  be  used.  If 
only  a  small  number  of  plants  are  to  be  treated,  the  pyrethrum 
decoction  is  to  be  recommended. 


FIG.   255.— The    mealy    bug    with    long 
threads,  male.      (After  Comstock.) 


FIG.  256. — The  mealy  bug  with  long 
threads,  female.     (After  Comstock.) 


The  Mealy  Bug  with  Long  Threads  (Dactylopius  longifilis 
Comst.). — This  bisect  resembles  the  previous  pest  very  closely 
except  in  technical  details.  The  lateral  filaments  are  seventeen 
in  number  and  are  quite  long,  and  the  last  on  each  side  is  equal 
to  or  longer  than  the  body.  These  filaments  give  the  bisect  its 
name.  The  female  surrounds  herself,  when  mature,  with  a  cottony 
substance,  amid  which  the  young  cluster  for  a  time.  The  larval 
male  forms  a  small  cotton  cocoon  in  which  it  pupates  and  from 
which  the  winged  adult  emerges.  The  transparent  wings  expand 
only  one-tenth  of  an  inch. 

Control. — The  same  remedies  and  methods  of  prevention  are 
applicable  to  this  bisect  as  to  the  preceding.  Lady-bird  beetles 


254  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  FLOWER  GARDEN 

are  very  efficient  in  holding  both  of  these  pests  in  check.    Figures 

255  and  256  illustrate  the  male  and  female  of  this  species. 

The  Greedy  Scale  (Aspidiotus  rapax  Comst.). — The  female 
scale  is  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  long,  quite  convex,  and  of  a 
grayish  color.  The  insect  beneath  the  scale  is  bright  yellow. 
Yellow  eggs  are  found  under  the  mature  female,  from  which  yel- 
lowish larvae  soon  hatch.  These  larvae  are  extremely  small — at 
the  time  of  hatching,  one  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  length. 


FIG.  257.— The  white  scale. 

For  a  time  they  are  able  to  crawl  about,  but  soon  settle  and, 
after  secreting  a  scale  from  their  bodies,  lose  the  power  of  locomo- 
tion. The  females  remain  stationary;  winged  males  emerge  from 
the  male  scales,  fertilizing  the  females,  which  deposit  several 
hundred  eggs  or  give  birth  to  living  young.  This  scale  is  nearly 
cosmopolitan  in  range,  but  is  seldom  very  troublesome. 

The  Common  White  Scale  (Aspidiotus  nerii  Bouche). — This 
is  a  flat,  whitish  or  grayish  scale  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  when  mature.  The  male  scale  is  smaller  than  the  female 
and  slightly  elongated.  It  is  white,  tinged  with  yellow,  one 


LICE  ON  PEAS,  ROSES,  AND  GOLDEN  GLOW     255 

twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  winged  males  are  minute, 
and  are  yellow,  mottled  with  reddish  brown  (Fig.  257).  In  a 
general  way  the  life  history  of  this  scale  is  identical  with  that  of 
the  other  scales.  The  methods  of  control  are  practically  the  same 
as  for  the  others. 

Palms,  ferns,  and  other  house  plants  affected  with  a  few  scales 
can  be  freed  of  these  pests  by  the  use  of  an  old  tooth-brush  dipped 
in  strong  soapsuds  to  which  tobacco  extract  has  been  added. 
The  plants  are  afterward  washed  with  pure  water. 

The  White  Fly. — Scattering  of  powdered  sulfur  on  hot  water 
pipes  or  steam  pipes  of  greenhouses,  it  is  claimed,  is  more  or  less 
efficacious  in  exterminating  the  white  fly  and  red  spider.  (See 
pages  46  and  67.) 

Plant  Lice  or  Aphids. — These  insects  are  generally  controlled 
by  fumigation  with  nicofume  paper.  Fumigation  with  cyanide 
of  potassium  or  other  approved  agent  is  one  of  the  best  remedies 
for  greenhouse  pests,  but  it  must  be  done  understandingly  and 
with  proper  precautions.  (See  page  64.) 

Sow  Bugs  or  Wood  Lice. — These  small,  grayish  forms  (Conis- 
cus)  are  not  true  insects.  They  are  among  the  most  troublesome 
of  greenhouse  pests.  However,  they  may  be  easily  controlled  by 
a  mixture  of  sugar  and  Paris  green  sprinkled  along  the  edge  of 
the  boards  forming  the  sides  of  the  beds.  This  will  attract  and 
kill  many.  In  fact,  this  seems  to  be  the  approved  remedy.  It  is 
claimed  that  slices  of  young,  juicy  potatoes,  sprinkled  with  Paris 
green  and  left  in  places  frequented  by  the  sow  bugs,  are  also 
efficacious.  (See  page  44.) 

SOME    INSECTS   OF   THE   FLOWER   GARDEN 

Lice  on  Peas,  Roses,  Golden  Glow  and  other  plants. — A  small 
cake  of  ivory  soap,  or  a  similar  quantity  of  good  laundry  soap, 
dissolved  in  five  gallons  of  hot  water  and  the  solution  sprayed 
forcibly  against  these  insects,  is  effective  in  exterminating  them. 
The  spray  will  not  injure  delicate  plants.  Each  louse  should  be 
hit  with  the  liquid,  and  a  repetition  of  the  treatment  may  be 
necessary,  for  if  even  a  few  escape  destruction  the  plant  will 
very  shortly  become  infested  again.  Tobacco  extract,  or  nicotine 
sulfate,  added  to  the  solution,  at  the  rate  of  two  tablespoonfuls 
to  the  gallon,  will  increase  its  efficiency.  A  forcible  spraying, 
frequently  repeated  with  water  from  the  garden  hose,  will  wash 
lice  off  of  sweet  peas  and  other  delicate  plants. 


256    INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  FLOWER  GARDEN 

Ants  in  the  Lawn. — Colonies  of  black  ants  (Fig.  258),  which 
build  large  nests  sometimes  a  foot  high,  may  be  exterminated  by 
the  use  of  bisulfid  of  carbon.  Make  eight  or  ten  holes  at  intervals 
over  the  nest,  using  a  cane  or  any  pointed  stick  of  similar  size, 
and  push  it  in  for  eight  or  ten  inches.  Pour  a  tablespoonful  of 
bisulfid  of  carbon  into  each  hole,  stop  the  opening  with  earth, 
and  throw  two  or  three  burlap  sacks  or  a  piece  of  canvas  over  the 
nest  to  help  confine  the  gas.  Preferably  the  sacks  should  be  wet. 
Leave  them  for  twenty-four  hours.  Repeat  if  necessary. 

The  small  red  ants  which  make  tiny  hills  are  sometimes  trouble- 
some when  abundant.  Repeated  hoeing  and  cultivation  will 
discourage  their  work,  as  will  also  copious  watering.  If  many 
small  hills  in  a  cluster  impair  the  lawn,  treat  with  bisulfid  of  carbon 
as  recommended  above  for  black  ants. 


FIG.   258. — The  common  black  ant,  much  enlarged. 

The  Stalk  Borers. — Golden  glow,  dahlias,  hollyhocks,  gaillardia, 
delphinium,  asters,  daisies,  peonies,  lilies,  and  sunflowers  in  the 
flower  garden,  as  well  as  tomatoes  and  other  plants  in  the  vege- 
table garden,  may  suffer  as  a  result  of  the  attack  of  several  species 
of  borers  belonging  to  the  genus  Papaipema.  A  drooping  or  wilt- 
ing tip  or  branch  (Fig.  259)  is  generally  an  indication  that  just 
below  the  affected  portion  a  hole  in  the  stalk  may  be  found  from 
which  protrude  castings  left  by  the  caterpillar.  This  caterpillar 
excrement,  wherever  found,  is  proof  positive  of  the  presence  of 
the  pest,  and  a  little  searching  will  result  in  the  burrow  being 
discovered. 

Life  History. — These  moths  (Fig.  260)  emerge  in  late  summer, 


WHITE  GRUBS  IN  LAWN  257 

deposit  their  eggs  at  that  time  on  the  stalks  of  weeds,  such  as  giant 
bur  elder  (evidently  the  preferred  food  plant),  ragweed,  burdock, 
thistle,  and  others,  close  to  the  ground.  The  winter  is  passed  in 
this  condition,  the  eggs  hatch  in  the  spring  and  the  larvae  then  leave 
their  first  food  plant  for  garden  plants  in  the  vicinity.  If  a  neglected 
lot  or  weedy  field  is  close  to  a  flower  garden,  the  latter  is  quite 
sure  to  be  affected,  even  if  the  garden  itself  is  free  from  such  weeds. 
Control. — Choice  beds  of  lilies  or  other  plants  (or,  if  practi- 
cable, an  entire  flower  garden)  may  be  protected  from  attack  by  a 
six-  or  eight-inch  board  placed  around  the  outside,  the  lower  edge 
an  inch  or  more  below  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  this  board  to  have 
on  the  outside  a  band  of  some  sticky  material  like  tree  tanglefoot, 
which  will  remain  sticky  or  can  be  kept  so  by  repeated  applications 


FIG.   259. — Tip  of  golden  glow  plant,  wilting  as  result  of  attack  of  a  stalk  borer. 

during  late  spring  and  summer.  This  tanglefoot  should  be  applied 
far  enough  above  the  ground  to  prevent  its  being  spattered  with 
earth  during  a  rain.  (See  page  248  for  other  remedies.) 

Green  Cabbage  Worms. — These  cabbage  pests  are  sometimes 
found  in  destructive  numbers  on  nasturtiums.  If  the  white  butter- 
flies which  produce  them  are  seen  in  flower  gardens,  one  may  expect 
nasturtium  leaves  to  be  eaten  later.  Hand-picking  of  the  worms, 
which  are  found  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  is  perhaps  the 
only  practical  remedy.  White  hellebore  dusted  generously  over 
the  affected  leaves  will  lessen  their  numbers. 

White  Grubs  in  Lawn. — Dead  patches  may  appear  in  lawns 
17 


258    INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  FLOWER  GARDEN 

as  the  result  of  the  work  of  these  larvae,  which  eat  the  roots.  Sod 
thus  affected  can  be  easily  rolled  up  from  the  earth,  as  one  would 
roll  a  piece  of  carpet,  disclosing  the  grubs  below.  At  least  two 
years  are  required  for  these  bisects  to  mature,  and  since  their 
presence  for  the  first  year,  on  account  of  their  small  size,  is  not 
evident,  a  lawn  rarely  suffers  for  two  years  in  succession.  Robins 
are  very  fond  of  white  grubs,  and  may  frequently  be  seen  pulling 
them  from  the  sod.  Copious  watering  where  water  is  convenient 
serves  to  keep  the  grass  growing  in  spite  of  their  ravages.  Fre- 
quent hoeing  and  cultivation  about  plants  occasionally  discloses 
grubs,  which  may  be  guilty  of  eating  the  roots  and  thus  killing  a 
plant.  Lantern  traps  are  sometimes  employed  (see  page  49)  to 
catch  the  adult  beetles  (June  bugs)  before  their  eggs  are  laid. 


Flo.   260. — Moth  of  one  of  the  stalk  borers,  Papaipema  nitela. 

Moles  are  also  useful  in  this  connection,  as  they  destroy  large 
numbers  of  grubs. 

Rose  Chafers,  "Woolly  Bear"  Caterpillars,  and  other  Leaf- 
eating  Insects. — All  leaf-eating  insects  in  the  flower  garden  may 
be  controlled  with  arsenate  of  lead,  one-half  pound  to  five  gallons 
of  water,  but  this  insecticide  will  leave  a  white  stain  on  the  foliage. 
White  hellebore  dusted  on  the  leaves  when  they  are  moist  has  not 
this  objectionable  feature. 

Lice  on  Roots  of  Asters. — Aster  blight  occurs  on  account  of 
a  disease  and  because  of  the  presence  of  root  lice.  Frequent 
watering  with  weak  tobacco  extracts,  poured  close  to  the  plant, 
holds  lice  in  check.  Use  two  tablespoonfuls  of  nicotine  sulfate 
in  one  gallon  of  water.  Asters  call  for  a  fairly  rich  soil,  and  it 
has  been  the  writer's  personal  observation  that  where  they  get 


QUESTIONS  259 

shade  for  half  of  the  day  they  flourish  better  than  when  in  full 
sun  all  of  the  time.  If  thrifty  they  may  largely  overcome  the 
attacks  of  root  lice. 

Leaf  Bugs. — These  destructive  bisects  (see  page  148)  kill  buds 
both  of  asters  and  of  dahlias.  The  best  remedy  known  to  the 
writer  is  frequent  application  of  fine  tobacco  dust  to  the  buds. 

Cut  Worms. — Good  tillage  of  the  soil  and  the  killing  of  worms 
when  found  are  recommended.  One  should  also  encourage  the 
presence  of  birds.  Young  plants,  when  set  out,  may  be  protected 
by  "collars"  of  paper  or  cardboard  or  metal  encircling  the  plant 
and  inserted  about  three  inches  into  the  ground,  care  being  taken 
not  to  enclose  cut  worms  within  the  collar.  Tablespoonfuls  of 
poisoned  bran  mash  (see  page  195)  may  be  placed  at  intervals 
among  the  plants  in  the  flower  beds. 

Slugs  or  Naked  Snails  in  the  Flower  Garden. — While  these 
are  not  insects,  they  nevertheless  deserve  attention  here,  since 
they  sometimes  eat  the  delicate  leaves  of  flowering  plants.  Air- 
slaked  lime  dusted  on  the  ground  about  plants  is  a  good  deterrent 
so  long  as  it  remains  dry,  and  is  very  effective  if  applied  directly 
upon  the  animals.  Pieces  of  shingles  or  cabbage  leaves  or  boards 
may  be  made  use  of  as  traps;  the  slugs  will  conceal  themselves 
under  them  during  the  day. 

Slug  Caterpillars  on  Roses. — These  are  true  insects,  the  larvae 
of  a  saw-fly.  Dust  white  hellebore  on  leaves,  or  add  one  ounce 
to  a  gallon  of  water  and  use  as  spray.  Dusting  with  air-slaked 
lime  is  effective. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Enumerate  the  insects  which  are  most  commonly  found  on  house  plants 

and  in  the  greenhouse. 

2.  Which  of  these  are  you  familiar  with,  in  your  experience? 

3.  Give  remedies  for  mealy  bugs,  scales,  and  plant  lice  occurring  on  house 

plants. 

4.  Should  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  be  used  against  any  of  the  above? 

State  reasons  for  your  answer. 

5.  Give  remedial  measures  for  each  of  the  following  insects  of  the  flower 

garden:   plant  lice,  stalk  borers,  ants,  white  grubs. 

6.  How  are  slugs  or  naked  snails  combated  effectively? 


CHAPTER  XV 
INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 

THE  attractiveness  of  many  of  our  towns  and  cities  is  due  in 
large  measure  to  the  beauty  of  the  shade  trees  in  streets  and  parks. 
Occasionally  insect  depredations  are  such  as  to  almost  or  quite 
denude  these  trees  of  their  leaves  or  to  cause  their  death.  The 
object  of  this  chapter  is  to  discuss  these  pests  and  to  offer  either 
remedial  or  protective  measures. 

The  Box-elder  Bug. — This  is  a  bright-colored,  black  and  red 
bug  (Leptocorisa  trivittata  Say)  familiar  to  many  of  our  farmers. 
The  red  forms  three  broad  lines  over  the  black  thorax,  and  the 
hard  parts  of  the  wings  are  edged  with  red.  The  adult  bug, 
having  passed  the  winter  in  this  stage,  lays  eggs  in  the  spring 
wherever  it  happens  to  be. 

Many  of  the  young,  hatched  from  the  eggs,  never  reach  their 
food.  The  insects  are  frequently  found  on  the  leaves  and  tender 
twigs  of  the  box  elder,  which  habit  gives  them  their  name.  It 
may  be  seen,  however,  upon  other  trees  and  in  various  situations 
(Fig.  261). 

Control. — This  being  a  sucking  insect,  it  is  difficult  to  control 
it  by  spraying.  Villages  and  cities  should  own  strong  spraying 
outfits  to  protect  their  shade  trees.  In  the  fall,  during  cold  days, 
the  bugs  collect  in  large  numbers  and  become,  for  the  time  being, 
inactive.  Such  gatherings  should  be  sought  and  the  individ- 
uals killed  with  boiling  water.  However,  the  box  elder  bug  is 
hardly  ever  sufficiently  injurious  to  call  for  strenuous  measures 
of  control. 

Box  Elder  Plant  Louse  (Chaitophorus  negundinis  Thos.). — 
This  is  a  green  louse  which  may  be  a  serious  pest  to  box  elders 
through  sucking  juices  from  the  leaves  and  tender  shoots,  thereby 
causing  them  to  wither  and  die.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall  and  hatch 
before  the  leaves  unfold.  The  lice  gather  about  the  opening  buds 
and  attack  the  leaves  as  soon  as  they  open.  Winged  forms  appear 
during  the  season  to  help  dissemination.  Parthenogenetic  reproduc- 
tion is  the  rule  during  summer,  males  and  females  appearing  in 
the  fall.  Eggs  are  then  laid  in  the  crevices  in  the  bark  and  in  the 
axils  of  the  buds. 
260 


THE  BOX  ELDER  GALL-FLY 


261 


The  Box  Elder  Gall-fly. — This  is  a  very  minute,  two-winged 
fly  (Ceddomyia  negundinis   Gill)  which  lays  eggs  on  the  leaves 


FIG.   261. — Box-elder  bug;  male,  female,  and  nymphs.     (Lugger.) 

of  the  box  elder.  As  a  result  the  leaves  form  unsightly  galls  (Fig. 
262)  which  interfere  with  the  proper  functioning  of  the  foliage. 
Tiny  maggots  are  found  inside  of  the  galls.  Maple  leaves  (Fig. 


262 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


263)  are  subject  to  the  attacks  of  these  small  flies  (Fig.  264). 
Imperfect  galls  containing  maggots  are  formed. 

The  only  remedy  suggested  is  the  picking  off  of  affected  leaves 
before  the  larvae  become  adult;  destroy  the  galls  containing  the 
insects. 

The  Bronze  Birch  Borer  (Agrilus  anxius  Gory). — This  borer 
is  one  of  the  most  injurious  and  destructive  of  enemies  to  shade 


FIG.   262. — Insect-made  galls  on  box  elder.     (Ruggles.) 

trees.  The  adult  beetle  is  bronze-green  or  varies  in  color;  it  is 
about  one-half  of  an  inch  long.  Posteriorly  there  is  a  notch  where 
the  ends  of  the  wing-covers  come  together.  The  larvse  are  small, 
flattened,  footless  grubs,  creamy  white  in  color,  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  long.  The  mouth  parts  are  dark,  and  the  small  head  may 
be  partly  drawn  into  the  first  segment  of  the  body. 

Life  History. — Hatching  in  June  or  July  from  eggs  laid  in 
crevices  in  the  rougher  parts  of  the  bark,  the  grubs  bore  through 
the  bark  and  at  once  begin  to  mine  the  sapwood  (Fig.  265).  The 


THE  BIRCH  LEAF  SKELETONIZER  263 

burrows  are  always  packed  with  castings  of  the  grub.  It  lives  in 
the  larval  stage  until  the  latter  part  of  the  following  spring,  trans- 
forming to  a  pupa  within  the  burrow.  A  month  later  it  changes 
to  the  adult  form,  and  escapes  from  the  tree  in  late  June. 

Injury. — It  then  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  trees.  This  insect 
infests  all  varieties  of  birch,  and  it  is  sometimes  claimed  that  it 
attacks  willows.  Trees  of  large  size  are  often  killed  by  these 
borers  within  three  or  four  years,  and  it  is  a  common  sight  .to 
observe  large  birch  trees  dying  from  the  top  as  the  result  of  attacks 
from  this  insect. 

Control. — When  this  condition  is  observed,  the  only  remedy 
practicable  is  to  cut  infested  trees  below  the  injured  portion, 


FIQ.  263. — Imperfect    galls    on    leaves    of    maple.          Fia.  264. — Fly  raised  from  galls 

on  maple. 

taking  pains  to  cut  low  enough  to  remove  any  portions  infested 
by  the  grubs.  These  cut-off  portions  should  be  burned.  This 
pruning  should  be  done  in  winter  or  early  spring. 

The  Birch  Leaf  Skeletonizer. — This  is  a  brown  moth  (Buccu- 
latrix  canadensiella  Cham.)  less  than  one-half  inch  in  length. 
The  wings  are  crossed  with  delicate  white  bars.  The  green  cater- 
pillar or  larva  has  a  brownish  head;  it  is  quite  slender  and  tapers 
slightly  toward  the  anterior  and  posterior  ends.  When  disturbed, 
it  may  lower  itself  by  means  of  a  silken  thread  from  the  leaves. 
The  cocoon  is  brownish  or  yellowish  hi  color  and  one-fourth'  of 
an  inch  long.  It  is  attached  to  the  leaf  or  twig. 

This  is  a  serious  pest  of  the  birch.  It  feeds  on  the  soft  parts  of 
the  leaf,  leaving  only  the  brownish  skeleton.  In  late  summer  this 
injury  is  conspicuous. 


264  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 

Control. — Spray  infested  trees  with  arsenicals,  preferably  four 
or  five  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water. 


FIG.  265. — Work  of  bronze  birch  borer. 

This  is  practicable  if  the  trees  are  not  too  large.  Even  in  the  case 
of  large  trees,  if  valuable,  bamboo  extensions  of  spraying  hose 
might  be  handled  from  raised  platforms, 


THE  ALDER  "BLIGHT 


265 


The  Fall  Web  Worm.— The  adult  insect  is  a  white  moth 
(Hyphantria  cunea  Dru.)  with  wing  expanse  of  about  one  and  one- 
fourth  inches.  The  wings  are  slightly  spotted  with  black.  The 
pale  yellow  eggs,  in  clusters  of  a  few  hundred,  are  deposited  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves  during  the  summer.  About  ten  days 
are  required  for  hatching.  The  young  larvae  are  pale  yellow  with 
brown  markings. 

These  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  various  trees,  and  spin  a  pro- 
tective web  as  their  feeding-ground  enlarges,  this  nest  enclosing 
the  leaves  (Fig.  266).  The  active 
larvae  become  full  grown  late  in 
summer.  At  this  time  the  cater- 
pillars are  about  one  inch  long 
and  are  covered  with  black  and 
white  hairs  which  project  from 
numerous  black  tubercles.  These 
caterpillars  are  somewhat  vary- 
ing as  to  color;  some  are  uni- 
formly yellow;  others  are  almost 
white.  They  attain  full  growth 
in  summer. 

After  spinning  light  cocoons 
in  the  ground  or  under  the  bark 
or  rubbish,  they  pupate  and 
emerge  as  adults  the  following 
spring.  The  moth  is  a  night  flier. 

Control. — Cut  away  and 
burn  branches  containing  colo- 
nies of  caterpillars.  Spray  badly 
infested  trees  with  arsenate  of 
lead,  using  three  pounds  to  fift}> 
gallons  of  water.  Burn  all  rubbish  on  the  ground  beneath  trees 
which  were  infested  the  previous  year.  Do  this  before  the  adults 
emerge  in  the  spring  and  after  their  pupation  in  the  fall.  For- 
tunately many  enemies  tend  to  keep  this  pest  in  check. 

The  Alder  "Blight."— This  is  a  woolly  louse  (Pemphigus  tes- 
sellata  Fitch)  which  receives  the  above  name  because  of  the  fact 
that  it  secretes  a  honey  dew  which,  falling  on  leaves  beneath, 
creates  a  favorable  condition  for  the  growth  of  the  blight  fungus. 
The  louse  itself  is  dark  in  color,  but  is  covered  and  hidden  with  a 
white,  flocculent  growth.  It  infests  limbs  and  twigs  of  the  alder, 


FIG.   266. — Nests  of  the  fall  web  worm. 


266 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


appearing  in  conspicuous  and  ^unsightly  masses.  It  multiplies 
parthenogenetically,  like  other  species  of  the  plant  louse  family, 
during  the  summer,  giving  rise  to  winged  migrants  from  time  to 
time.  The  sexual  forms  occur  in  the  fall  upon  the  maple,  at  which 
time  eggs  are  laid.  The  eggs  are  placed  under  loose  bark  "of  the 
silver  and  soft  maples.  There  is  a  hibernating  form  which  descends 
to  the  ground  and  hibernates  in  rubbish,  ascending  the  alders 
again  in  the  spring. 

Control. — Kerosene  emulsion  is  the  best  spray,  since  kerosene 
readily  penetrates  the  waterproof  waxy  secretion  which    covers 


FIG.   267. — Cockscomb  gall  on  white  elm. 

the  insects.  Straw  and  leaves  may  be  placed  under  the  trees  and 
later  gathered  and  burned  to  trap  the  hibernating  forms.  Infested 
limbs  should  be  cut  off  and  destroyed  as  soon  as  noticed. 

The  Cockscomb  Gall. — This  species  of  louse  (Colopha  ulmicola 
Fitch)  causes  a  peculiar  gall  on  elm  leaves  resembling  a  cock's 
comb.  In  a  general  way  the  life  history  of  this  insect  resembles 
that  of  other  aphids.  The  gall  is  about  an  inch  long  and  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  high.  The  sides  are  wrinkled  perpendicularly 
and  the  summit  irregularly  gashed  and  toothed  (Fig.  267).  On 
the  under  side  of  the  leaf  the  gall  has  a  slit-like  opening.  Upon 
opening  these  galls,  they  are  found  to  be  crowded  with  lice  and 
white  flaky  material. 


ANOTHER  GALL  OF  THE  ELM 


267 


The  galls  become  dark  with  age.  To  a  certain  extent,  these 
galls  interfere  with  the 'proper  functioning  of  the  leaves  and  are 
unsightly.  Nevertheless,  the  insects  are  not  regarded  as  serious 
pests. 

Control. — The  only  practical  remedy  is  to  cut  off  galls  when 


FIG.   268. — Gall  on  red  elm  made  by  a  plant  louse,  Pemphigus  ulmi  fusus. 


FIG.   269. — Basswood  leaf  and  fruit  showing  galls  made  by  a  two-winged  fly. 

noticed  on  young  trees  and  to  burn  them  while  still  containing  the 
lice. 

Another  gall  of  the  elm  is  that  made  by  a  plant-louse  (Pem- 
phigus ulmi  fusus  Walsh)  (Fig.  268).  Basswoods  also  suffer  from 
the  attacks  of  gall-making  insects  (Fig.  269). 


268 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


The  Elm-leaf  Beetle.— This  beetle  (Galerucella  luteola  Mull) 
is  an  importation  from  Europe.  It  is  greenish  yellow,  with  black 
stripes  on  the  back.  The  eggs  are  yellow,  bottle-shaped,  and  are 
laid  on  the  under  side  of  the  elm  leaves.  The  larvae  are  yellow, 
with  black  spots  from  which  project  small  tufts  of  hair.  Pupation 
takes  place  amid  grass  or  litter  on  the  ground  under  the  trees 
affected. 

Injury. — The  insect  prefers  European  elms,  and  has  been  so 


FIG.  270. — The  elm-leaf  beetle,  different  stages,  details  of  structure,  and  injured  elm  leaves. 
Hair  lines  indicate  actual  size.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

injurious  to  elms  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  that 
municipal  authorities  have  been  obliged  to  hire  gangs  of  men  to 
save  the  trees  by  spraying  (Fig.  270). 

Control. — The  use  of  an  arsenate  of  lead  spray  just  as  the  grubs 
appear  is  recommended. 

The  Elm  Borer. — This  handsome  beetle  (Saperda  tridentata 
Oliv.)  is  grayish  above.  On  each  side  of  the  thorax  and  on  each 
wing-cover  is  a  sub-marginal  reddish  or  yellowish  stripe.  Fre- 


THE  WHITE-MARKED  TUSSOCK  MOTH 


269 


quently  there  are  two  black  spots  on  each  side  of  the  thorax  and 
three  on  each  side  of  the  whig-cover.  The  larva  is  a  footless  grub 
a  little  over  an  inch  long;  whitish  or  yellowish  (Fig.  271). 

Its  life  history  extends  probably  over  two  or  three  years. 
Eggs  are  deposited  in  early  summer.  By  burrowing  under  the 
bark  the  grub  may  girdle  and  kill  the  tree.  A  portion  of  an  elm 
killed  by  this  borer  is  shown  in  figure  272. 

Control. — To  protect  trees  not  infested,  apply  before  May  1, 
and  later  repeat  the  application,  a  compound  of  thick  whitewash 
containing  crude  carbolic  acid.      Use  one  quart  of 
the  acid  to  a  pailful  of  whitewash.    To  fifty  gallons  of 
this  wash  add  six  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead.     This 
protective    coat  may   be   rendered 
inconspicuous  by  the  addition   of 
lamp-black,  and  should  be  applied 


FIG.   271. — The  elm  borer,  larva,  pupa,  and  imago,  enlarged. 

with  a  brush  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  to  the  lower  portions  of 
the  branches. 

The  White-marked  Tussock  Moth. — The  caterpillar  of  this 
insect  (Heterocampa  leucostigma  S.  and  A.)  is  strikingly  beautiful. 
When  full  grown  it  is  one  and  one-half  inches  long,  hairy,  with  a 
pencil  or  brush  of  hairs  like  a  horn  on  either  side  of  its  head  and 
a  smaller,  median  tuft  near  the  tip  of  the  abdomen ;  it  has  four  strik- 
ing white  tussocks  of  hairs  on  the  middle  of  the  first  four  abdominal 
segments.  The  head  is  red;  along  each  side  of  the  black  stripe 
down  the  middle  of  the  back  is  a  distinct  yellow  stripe  (Fig.  273) . 


270 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


The  wingless  female  moth  is  somewhat  spider-like  in  appearance 
and  of  a  grayish  color,  while  the  male  is  dull  gray,  with  several 


Flo.  272. — Tree  in  foreground  killed  by  elm  tree  borer. 

1\  A  *          I     i  | 


FIG.  273. — White-marked    tussock    cater- 
pillar.    (After  Riley.) 


FIG.  274.— White-marked  tussock 
moth,  male.    (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


dark  gray  lines  crossing  the  fore-wings.     It  is  about  one  inch  in 
length  (Fig.  274). 

Life  History.— When  full  grown  the  caterpillar  spins  a  yellow- 


THE  VAGABOND  GALL  LOUSE 


271 


ish  cocoon  and  attaches  it  to  a  tree  or  a  fence  or  the  side  of  a  build- 
ing or  a  vine.  A  wingless  female  (Fig.  275)  emerges  therefrom  in 
the  spring  and  lays  eggs  in  masses  upon  the  silk  of  the  cocoon. 
These  egg-masses  are  covered  with  a  white,  frothy  substance  so 
that  the  individual  eggs  are  obscured.  They  commence  to  hatch 
in  a  few  weeks  and  continue  until  early  summer,  when  some  of 
the  first  hatched  caterpillars  begin  to  pupate.  The  moths  from 
these  pupse  give  rise,  in  some  latitudes,  to  a  second  generation, 
which  passes  the  winter  as  pupse. 

Injury. — This  caterpillar  is  sometimes  extremely  destructive 
to  the  foliage  of  fruit  and  shade  trees,  and  has  been  known  to  eat 
holes  in  the  fruit  of  the  apple.  The  destructive  work  of  this  insect 
is  well  shown  in  figure  276. 


FIG.  275. — Wingless  female  of  the  white-marked  tussock  moth.     (Houser,  Ohio  Bull.,  194.) 

Control. — Egg-masses  should  be  destroyed  when  pruning  the 
trees.  If  infestation  is  serious  in  any  locality,  trees  may  be  banded 
with  tanglefoot  or  any  sticky  substance  to  prevent  the  ascent  of 
ohe  larvae.  Arsenical  spraying  when  the  larvae  are  hatching  catches 
the  first  brood. 

Fortunately  this  pest  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  numerous 
parasites  which  have  been  at  times  a  means  of  preventing  serious 
injury. 

The  Vagabond  Gall  Louse  (Pemphigus  vagabundus  Walsh). 
—This  insect  forms  unsightly  galls  on  the  cotton  woods,  but 
deserts  these  trees  before  the  latter  part  of  summer.  The  galls 
may  be  seen  on  the  tips  of  twigs  and  become  perfectly  black  when 
old.  They  do  not  seriously  affect  a  tree's  functions  unless  they 
occur  in  great  numbers. 


272 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


Clip  off  the  galls,  if  possible,  while  green  and  burn  them.  No 
other  remedial  measures  are  suggested. 

The  Cottonwood  Scale. — These  are  small,  papery,  snow-white 
scales  (Chionaspis  salicis  Linn.).  The  female  scales  are  larger 
and  more  or  less  pear-shaped.  They  are  found  on  the  branches 


FIQ.   276. — Horse  chestnut  defoliated  by  first  brood  of  larvae  of  white-marked  tussock  moth. 
(After  Houser,  Ohio  Bull.,  194.) 

of  the  cottonwood  and  some  other  trees.  Eggs  are  laid  under  the 
female  scale  in  the  autumn.  They  hatch  in  early  summer  into 
small  flattened,  oval  lice.  These  young  lice  are  very  active, 
spreading  over  all  accessible  branches.  Like  all  lice,  they  weaken 
the  tree  by  sucking  the  sap  therefrom. 

Control. — Kerosene  emulsion  and  whale-oil  soap  when  the 
young  are  hatching  form  fairly  effective  sprays.  The  spray  should 
be  applied  before  the  insects  are  protected  by  a  scale. 


WILLOW  SAW-FLY 


273 


The  Willow  Saw-fly. — This  large  saw-fly  (Cimbex  americana 
Leach)  has  a  shining  black  head ;  the  body  is  steel  blue,  with  three 
or  four  elongated,  oval,  yellowish  spots  on  each  side.  The  wings 
are  smoky  brown  in  color,  and  the  legs  bluish  black  with  yellowish 
feet.  The  well-known  larvae,  when  full  grown,  are  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  long,  pale  yellow  or  greenish  hi  color  with  a  black  stripe 
along  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  head  is  large,  rounded,  and  as 
wide  as  the  body.  When  the  saw-fly  rests  or  is  disturbed,  it  lies 
on  its  side  and  rolls  its  body  (Fig.  277),  a  habit  which  distinguishes 
it  from  real  caterpillars. 

Life  History. — The  female  fly  deposits  her  eggs  below  the  sur- 


FIG.  277. — The  willow  saw-fly,  caterpillar,  adult,  and  open  cocoon,  d.     Natural  size. 

face  of  the  leaf.  The  points  where  eggs  are  placed  can  be  plainly 
seen  on  the  under  surface,  being  bluer  than  the  rest  of  the  leaf, 
and  they  become  reddish  with  age.  There  may  be  from  one  to 
nine  eggs  on  a  leaf.  The  larvae,  after  hatching,  remain  within  this 
blister-like  structure  for  a  time.  In  July  and  August  they  become 
full  grown;  they  then  leave  the  foliage  and  are  found  in  tough, 
silken  cocoons  under  the  tree  or  shrub  hi  the  ground  just  below 
the  surface.  They  remain  in  this  condition  over  whiter  and  emerge 
in  spring. 

Injury   and   Control. — Although     this    saw-fly   destroys  the 
foliage  of  willows,  poplars,  and  elms,  and  is  recorded  as  attacking 
maples,  lindens,  and  alders,  it  is  not   considered  injurious  and  is 
18 


274  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 

easily  controlled  by  arsenical  sprays.  Of  these,  the  safest  is 
arsenate  of  lead. 

The  Yellow-spotted  Willow  Slug. — This  saw-fly  larva  is  black 
or  greenish  black  in  color.  It  is  a  little  more  than  one-half  inch 
long,  with  heart-shaped,  yellowish  spots  on  each  side  of  the  body. 
The  adult  insect  (Nematus  ventralis  Say)  is  brownish  black 
marked  with  yellowish  white.  It  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long. 

Injury. — -The  first  indication  of  the  presence  of  these  slugs  is 
the  blister-like  swellings  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  They 
have  a  wavy  or  crumpled  appearance,  due  to  the  presence  of  eggs 
in  the  under  surface.  From  four  to  eight  days  are  required  for 
hatching.  These  "worms"  feed  close  together  on  the  leaf,  de- 
vouring it  entirely,  leaving  only  the  midrib. 

Life  History. — In  ten  days  to  three  weeks  the  larvae  become 
full  grown,  descend  to  the  ground,  where  they  form  shining,  dark 
brown  cocoons  composed  of  a  glue-like  secretion.  In  about  a 
week  the  adult  saw-fly  emerges. 

Control. — Sometimes  poplars  and  willows  are  defoliated  by  this 
pest,  but  it  is  easily  controlled  by  any  good  arsenical  poison. 
It  is  also  attacked  by  Chalcid  and  Ichneumon  parasites. 

The  Mottled  Willow  Borer.— This  is  a  snout  beetle  (Crypto- 
rhynchus  lapathi  Linn.)  ,from  one-third  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
long,  with  a  dull-black  body.  It  is  an  imported  species. 

Injury. — The  white  larva  burrows  around  the  buds  and  at 
bases  of  small  stems,  which  latter  it  may  partly  girdle.  The 
•injury  is  indicated  on  the  willows  by  a  purplish  discoloration  of 
the  bark  on  either  side  of  the  burrow.  The  larva  also  bores  into 
the  center  of  small  stems,  making  galleries  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  It  is  reported  as  attacking  willows,  cotton  woods, 
birches,  and  alders,  and  is  perhaps  as  much  a  pest  of  the  poplar 
as  of  the  willow  (Fig.  278). 

Control. — All  seriously  infested  wood  should  be  cut  and  burned 
in  the  early  spring. 

Cottonwood  Leaf  Beetle  (Melasoma  scripta  Fab.). — This 
beetle  (Fig.  279)  is  found  both  on  the  willow  and  poplar,  appear- 
ing hi  the  early  spring,  contemporaneously  with  the  leaves.  It 
shows  a  preference  for  tender  snoots.  Egg-laying  begins  imme- 
diately, the  eggs  being  placed  on  the  under  surfaces  of  leaves. 

The  young  grubs,  upon  hatching,  skeletonize  the  under"  sides 
of  the  leaves  and,  as  they  get  older,  eat  holes  in  the  stem.  When 
alarmed,  they  exude  a  milky  substance  along  their  sides  for  their 


THE  TWO-LINED  CHESTNUT  BORER  275 

protection;  they  appear  to  withdraw  it  at  will.  The  pupal  period 
is  passed  in  the  partly  cast  larval  skin.  Fifteen  days  are  required 
for  development  of  the  larva  and  pupa.  There  are  several  genera- 
tions each  season.  The  greatest  damage  is  caused  by  the  beetles 
on  the  young  leaves  and  small  tender  shoots. 

Control. — Spraying  with  arsenicals  has  proved  effective.  The 
worst  injury  occurs  in  nurseries,  and  these  remedial  measures  are 
for  use  there. 

The  Locust  Borer  (Cyllene  robinice  Forst.). — This  beautiful 
beetle,  black,  with  gold  markings,  nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
long,  is  a  common  pest  of  locust  trees  in  some  sections.  Branches, 
and  sometimes  an  entire  tree,  succumb  to  its  attack  (Fig.  280). 
In  the  fall  it  occurs  on  flowers  of  the  goldenrod. 


i 


FIG.  278. — Mottled  willow  borer.  FIG.  279. — Cottonwood  leaf  beetle,  enlarged 

and  natural  size.     (Ruggles.) 

The  whitish  eggs  are  laid  in  crevices  in  the  bark  in  September. 

Control. — Some  repellent  wash,  containing  arsenate  of  lead 
and  applied  very  early  in  the  fall,  is  recommended.  Fish -oil  soap, 
with  the  addition  of  crude  carbolic  acid  and  arsenate  of  lead,  at 
the  rate  of  six  pounds  of  the  latter  for  every  fifty  gallons  of  the 
wash,  is  suggested.  Badly  infested  trees  should  be  cut  down  and 
burned  during  the  winter  or  early  spring. 

The  Two-lined  Chestnut  Borer. — In  some  oak-growing  regions, 
Minnesota  for  example,  this  is  a  very  destructive  insect  (Agrilus 
bilineatus  Oliv.).  It  kills  more  oaks  than  any  other  species  of 
insect  so  far  discovered.  The  grubs  make  burrows  beneath  the 
bark  in  the  growing  layer.  The:r  tunnels  cut  off  the  food  supply 


276 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


from  the  root  to  leaf,  and  a  tree  thus  girdled  dies.    The  burrows 

may  occur  anywhere  from  the  base  of  the  tree  to  the  smaller  limbs. 

The  beetles  (Fig.  281)  are  found  flying  in  spring  and  early 


FIG.   280. — Young  locust  tree  injured  by  locust  borer  and  later  broken  by  the  wind.     (After 
Houser,  Ohio  Bull.,  194.) 

summer,  at  which  time  eggs  are  laid  on  the  bark.     One  year  is 
necessary  for  the  life  cycle. 

Control. — Chapman  advises  the  cutting  and  burning  of  in- 
fested trees  before  the  emergence  of  the  adults  in  the  spring.    This 


WHITE  PINE  WEEVIL 


277 


is  a  hard  thing  for  a  tree  owner  to  do,  but  quite  necessary  in  order 
to  protect  other  trees.  He  suggests  the  need  of  some  other  remedial 
measure,  and  reports  successful  results  in  spraying  the  trunks 
and  large  limbs  of  several  trees  with  a  mixture  of  iron  sulfate  and 
lime-sulfur,  and  others  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  This  was  done  as 
a  preventive  measure  during  the  egg-laying  season. 

Turpentine  Bark  Beetle. — This  is  a  bark-boring  beetle  (Den- 
droctonus  terebrans  Oliv.)  nearly  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
brownish  in  color.  It  works  in  the  bark  of  dying  trees  or 
stumps  of  pine  trees.  Healthy  trees  are  attacked  only  when 
the  insect  is  pressed  for  food.  It  prefers  bark 
at  the  bases  of  the  trees  or  on  exposed  roots 
rather  than  that  which  is  higher  on  the  tree. 

It  is  often  attracted  to  recently 
painted  buildings  or  freshly  sawed  pine 
lumber  by  the  smell  of  turpentine. 
Hibernating  as  an  adult,  it  begins  to 
fly  in  April  and  May,  eggs  being  laid 
in  the  late  spring. 

There  are  a  few  natural  enemies  of 
this  pest,  and  large  numbers  have  been 
found  in  the  stomachs  of  brook  trout. 
(See  Fig.  2.) 

White  Pine  Weevil. — This  is  a  fairly 
large,  reddish-brown  beetle  (Pissodes 
strobi  Peck),  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
with  a  whitish  spot  on  each  side  of  the 
back  near  the  posterior  end.  The  sides 

•t  1  j  I    J  1  1  *  4  1  J-    XVI.       — <  '   I   . i   W  <J-lllIdl         U1JCOLA1UL 

and     legS     are     Somewhat     mottled     With     borer  larva  and  beetle,  about  twice 

white,  and  the  snout  is  long  and  stout.   e 

It  occurs  in  early  spring,  at  which  time  most  of  the  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  the  leading  shoots  of  pine,  one  egg  being  placed  at  a 
time  at  regular  intervals  throughout  the  length  of  the  leader  or 
shaft  of  the  tree.  The  grub,  after  hatching,  eats  inward  and  ob- 
liquely downward  into  the  pith,  in  which  it  burrows  a  short  distance. 
Pupation  is  passed  in  the  burrow,  adults  emerging  in  the  spring. 

Injury. — The  leader  being  killed,  an  irregular,  deformed  tree 
is  the  result,  termed  by  lumbermen  as  " buckwheat  pine."  Such 
trees  have  but  little  commercial  value  for  lumber. 

Control. — Many  natural  enemies  attack  this  pest.  Birds  are 
very  effective  as  checks  to  its  increase. 


FIG.   281.— Two-lined    chestnut 


278 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


Pine  Bark  Aphid. — The  wingless  female  of  this  species  (Chermes 
pinicorticis  Fitch)  is  enclosed  in  a  woolly  mass  which  is  seen  stick- 
ing to  the  bark  (Fig.  282).  Eggs  are  found  in  downy  bundles  near 
the  bases  of  needles,  and  vary  in  number  from  five  to  sixty  or  more 
in  each  mass. 

The  life  history  is  doubtless  approximately  the  same  as  other 
aphids.  The  winter  appears  to  be  passed  by  fertilized  females 

which  lay  eggs  in  early  spring. 
It  is  possible  there  is  an  alter- 
nate food  plant. 

Injury.  —  Patches  of  this 
flocculent,  downy  matter  may 
be  observed  upon  the  smooth 
bark  of  white  pine.  The  pres- 
ence of  this  insect  in  large  num- 
bers naturally  reduces  the  vi- 
tality of  the  tree,  and  leaves 
it  in  a  sickly  condition  which 
ultimately  results  in  death  (Fig. 
283). 

Control. — Where  a  forcible 
spray  of  cold  water  can  be  used, 
this  affords  perhaps  the  simplest 
and  most  effective  remedy. 
The  flocculent  masses  may  be 
sprayed  with  kerosene  emulsion 
at  the  rate  of  one  part  of  the 
stock  emulsion  (see  page  45) 
to  nine  parts  of  water;  or  use 
.—The  pine  bark  aphid,  white  pine  whale-oil  soap  at  the  rate  of  one 

louse,    'pine  blight.  •    .         .  •  c 

pound  to  nine  gallons  of  water. 

Pine  Leaf  Scale. — This  is  an  elongated,  whitish  scale  (Chermes 
pinifolice  Fitch)  seen  on  the  needles  of  the  various  pines.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  egg  stage  under  the  scale,  the  young  hatch- 
ing in  the  spring.  Winged  adults  fly  to  spruce,  the  alternate  host, 
and  there  the  female  lays  her  eggs.  The  scale  from  these  eggs  forms 
a  characteristic  gall  on  spruce  (Figs.  283  and  284),  from  which  later 
adults  fly  back  to  the  pine,  there  secreting  the  permanent  scale. 

Like  other  sucking  insects,  the  attacks  of  this  pest  in  any 
numbers  reduce  the  vitality  of  the  trees.  It  has  many  natural 
enemies. 


FIG.   282.- 


ORANGE-STRIPED  OAK  WORM 


279 


The  Goat  Moth. — The  larva  of  this  moth  (Prionoxystes 
robinice  Peck)  spends,  it  is  believed,  three  years,  boring  in  the 
trunk  and  large  limbs  of  oak,  elm,  locust,  poplar,  and  other 
trees,  increasing  the  size  of  the  burrow  as  it  grows  and  lining 
it  with  silk. 

The  female  moth  has  an  expanse  of  wings  of  nearly  two  and 
one-half  inches,  the  wings  being  gray,  marked  with  irregular  black 
lines.  The  expanse  of  the  wings  in  the  male  is  considerably  less, 
the  fore-wings  being  darker  than  in  the  female  and  the  hind-wings 
being  yellowish. 


FIG.  283. — Typical  injury  by  the  pine  chermes.     (O'Kane,  N.  H.  Circular.) 

Control. — It  is  difficult  to  provide  a  remedy  for  this  bisect, 
but  repellents  and  poison  washes  may  prevent  egg-laying  and 
kill  the  young  when  first  hatched. 

Orange-striped  Oak  Worm  (Anisota  senatoria  Hub.). — This 
is  a  dull-black  caterpillar  with  four  orange  stripes  along  each  side. 
There  is  also  a  broad,  yellow  stripe  along  the  middle  of  the  under 
side.  Two  slightly  curved  hairs  are  present  on  the  second  segment, 
and  three  rows  of  short  spines  occur  on  each  side  of  the  body. 
It  is  nearly  two  inches  in  length  when  full  grown. 

The  adult  moth  is  brownish,  its  wings  tinged  with  purple, 
and  each  marked  with  a  conspicuous  whitish  round  spot  on  a 


280  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 

dark,  oblique  line,  running  across  from  a  little  before  the  apex 
parallel  with  the  outer  margin. 

Injury. — The  larva  feeds  on  the  foliage  of  oaks  and  other  trees. 
It  is  occasionally  found  upon  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

Control. — Arsenical  sprays  should  be  effective  where  prac- 
ticable. 

The  Rustic  Borer. — Broad,  irregular,  shallow  galleries  in  the 
inner  bark  and  outer  sapwood  of  oak,  hickory,  and  some  other 


FIG.   284. — Gall  on  spruce  caused  by  the  pine  chermes  (C.  pinif olios).      Spruce  is  the  alternate 
host  of  this  insect.     (O'Kane,  N.  H.  Circular.) 

trees  are  frequently  caused  by  this  borer  (Xylotrechus  colonus 
Fab.).  It  may  attack  a  tree  in  perfect  health  and  entirely  girdle 
the  same  in  a  few  years.  The  adult  beetle  is  blackish,  variegated 
with  yellowish  or  slatish-white  markings.  The  length  is  about 
one-half  inch. 

Jumping  Seed  Galls. — One  sometimes  finds  below  oak  trees 
large  numbers  of  small,  round  galls  previously  attached  to  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves.  These  galls  contain  larva  which  have 


OAK  PRUNER  281 

the  power  of  causing  the  galls  to  jump  an  inch  or  more,  as  a  result 
of  the  activity  of  the  insect  (Neuroterus  saltatorius  Edw.)  within. 
The  galls  are  somewhat  depressed  and  found  embedded  in  the  leaf 
in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  a  slight  convexity  on  the  upper  surface. 
They  are  yellowish  when  they  are  detaching,  and  about  one-half 
inch  in  diameter. 

Oak  Pruner  (Elaphidion  villosum  Fab.). — This  beetle  is  rather 
slender  and  grayish  brown  in  color;  its  mouth-parts  are  rather 
weak.  The  larva  or  grub  is  obliged  to  cut  its  way  out  of  the  bur- 
row before  pupation.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  midsummer 


FIG.   285. — The  oak  primer,  beetle,  larva,  and  larva  in  burrow. 

on  the  smaller  twigs.  The  grub  eats  the  limb  nearly  off  and  then 
waits  for  the  wind  to  break  it  off  (Fig.  285).  The  twig,  lying  on 
the  ground,  is  kept  moist  during  the  winter — a  condition  favorable 
for  the  development  of  the  larva  and  pupa.  The  adult  beetle 
emerges  from  the  twig  in  the  spring.  This  is  the  usual  procedure, 
but  the  life  cycle  may  be  completed  on  the  tree. 

Injury. — This  natural  pruning  of  the  oak  is  not  particularly 
injurious.  The  insect  attacks  maple  as  well  as  oak,  and  has  been 
recorded  on  apple,  plum,  pear,  peach,  grape,  hickory,  locust, 
sumac,  and  other  trees  and  shrubs. 


282  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 

Control. — Since  the  fallen  branches  and  twigs  usually  contain 
larvae,  they  may  be  collected  and  burned. 

The  Luna  Moth. — This  beautiful  moth  (Actias  luna  Linn.) 
with  a  wing  expanse  of  four  and  one-half  inches,  is  one  of  our 
most  striking  insects,  vying  in  beauty  with  moths  from  the  tropics. 
The  hind-wings  are  extended  into  broad  tails  instead  of  being 
rounded.  The  color  of  the  wings  varies,  but  is  usually  a  delicate 
bluish  green  on  yellowish.  Upon  each  wing  is  an  "  eye-spot, "  a 
clear  center  encircled  by  red  and  black,  while  the  anterior  margin 
of  the  fore-wings  is  purple  or  purplish  brown.  The  caterpillar 
also  is  striking,  being  of  a  clear,  pale  blue-green  color,  with  little 
stripes  on  each  side.  There  are  small,  pearl-colored  tubercles  on 
each  segment,  each  tubercle  .being  tinged  with  purple  or  rose  color. 

Life  History. — When  full  grown  the  caterpillar  draws  together 
a  few  leaves,  fastens  them  with  silken  threads,  and  spins  its 
cocoon  inside.  In  the  autumn  this  cocoon  falls  to  the  ground  and 
the  moth  emerges  in  the  spring. 

It  attacks  walnut,  as  well  as  hickory.  It  is  not,  however,  a 
serious  pest. 

The  Walnut  Caterpillar  (Datana  angusii  G.  and  R.). — This 
caterpillar  may  be  extremely  destructive  to  the  foliage  of  hickory 
and  walnut.  It  has  the  habit  of  descending  the  trunk  to  within 
a  few  feet  of  the  ground,  gathering  in  masses  when  about  to  moult. 

At  such  times  it  is  easy  to  capture  and  destroy,  but  the  injury 
to  the  tree  has  already  been  done.  Arsenical  sprays  are  practical 
on  small  trees  or  in  nurseries  where  pests  are  to  be  fought. 

The  Twig  Girdler. — A  little  over  one-half  inch  long,  this  beetle 
(Oncideres  cingulatus  Say)  is  brownish  gray  in  color,  with  dull 
reddish  yellow  dots.  The  antennae  or  feelers  are  longer  than  the 
body.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  a  twig  or  branch  and  then  girdles 
it  a  little  below  so  that  a  wind  will  break  it  off.  This  insures  the 
falling  of  the  twig,  thus  furnishing  the  exact  conditions  necessary 
for  the  development  of  the  insect. 

It  will  probably  never  become  a  serious  pest,  as  a  moderate 
amount  of  pruning  of  small  twigs  on  hickory  might  well  be  an 
advantage.  The  fallen  twigs,  however,  may  be  gathered  and 
burned  with  the  contained  grub. 

The  Beautiful  Hickory  Borer. — This  striking  beetle  (Goes 
pulchra  Hold.)  is  about  one  inch  long.  It  is  reddish  brown,  with 
dark  brown  markings  on  the  wing-covers,  which  form  a  band 
across  the  wings.  This  band  is  produced  by  a  belt  of  fine  hairs. 


THE  MOURNING-CLOAK  283 

Injury  is  sometimes  caused  in  young  hickories  by  the  fact  that 
the  presence  of  the  larva  or  grub  may  cause  a  gall-like  swelling 
of  the  trunk  and  a  heavy  wind  may  break  the  tree  off  at  this  point. 

The  Painted  Hickory  Borer. — This  is  a  strikingly  beautiful 
beetle  (Cyllene  picta  Drury),  velvety  black,  with  numerous  pale 
yellow  bands  on  the  wing-covers  and  across  the  thorax.  The 
larvae  or  grubs  boring  in  hickory  and  elm  are  not  often  destructive. 

To  save  valuable  shade  trees,  trunks  may  be  anointed  late  in 
August  with  a  mixture  of  soft  soap  and  crude  carbolic  acid.  This 
should  be  repeated  in  September.  Whitewash  may  also  be  used 
as  a  repellent. 

The  Mourning-Cloak. — The  caterpillars  of  this  butterfly  (Eu- 
vanessa  antiopa  Linn.)  are  black,  spiny,  and  marked  with  red 


FIG.   28G. — The  mourning-cloak  butterfly. 

spots.  They  feed  upon  elms,  willows,  and  poplars.  The  butter- 
flies are  dark  bluish  brown,  more  or  less  iridescent;  the  margins 
of  the  wings  are  yellowish.  Just  inside  of  the  yellowish  margin 
is  a  row  of  blue  dots. 

Life  History. — The  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters  upon  twigs  of  the 
food  plant  early  in  the  spring.  The  butterflies  themselves  (Fig. 
286)  hibernate,  and  appear  early  in  the  spring.  The  caterpillars 
are  seen  in  groups  until  they  are  full  grown,  when  they  separate. 
Oftentimes  their  numbers  are  so  large  as  to  cause  a  small  branch 
to  bend  with  their  weight. 

Control. — Frequently  a  cluster  of  young  caterpillars,  if  ob- 
served, can  be  crushed  with  the  gloved  hand  or  a  twig  holding 
them  may  be  cut  off  and  burned.  They  are  easily  controlled 
with  arsenical  sprays. 


284  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 

The  Lime-tree  Winter  Moth. — The  female  moth  of  this  species 
(Erannis  tiliaria  Harr.)  is  wingless,  spider-like  in  appearance, 
with  a  yellowish-white  body.  The  male  has  large,  delicate  wings 
of  a  buff  color. 

Life  History. — Pupation  occurs  in  the  ground,  the  adults  emerg- 
ing in  the  fall,  at  which  time  the  females  climb  the  trees,  depositing 
their  oval,  pale-yellow  eggs  in  clusters  on  the  branches.  These 
eggs  hatch  in  the  spring  and  the  caterpillars  feed  during  the  summer. 


Flo.  287. — The  lime-tree  winter-moth;  larvae,  adult  male  above,  adult  female  below. 

(U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

The  caterpillars  are  measuring  worms,  similar  to  true  canker 
worms,  but  larger  and  differently  marked.  The  head  is  dull  yel- 
low. The  body  is  yellow  above,  with  many  longitudinal  black 
lines.  The  full-grown  caterpillar  is  about  one  and  one-fourth 
inches  long.  They  feed  on  the  foliage  of  the  elm,  basswood, 
hickory,  and  many  other  trees  (Fig.  287). 

Control. — Arsenical  sprays  are  practical  on  small  or  medium- 
sized  trees  and  necessary  on  large  trees  in  extreme  cases.  Banding 


LARCH  SAW-FLY 


285 


with  tree  tanglefoot  in  September  prevents  the  wingless  females 
from  climbing  the  trees. 

The  Elm  Leaf  Aphis. — This  is  the  very  common  louse  (Schi- 
zoneura  americana  Riley)  found  in  clusters  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves  of  the  elm,  where  it  may  be  seen  covered  with  a  whitish 
powder  and  exuding  " honey  dew"  which  attracts  ants. 

Injury. — Its  attack  causes  the  leaves  to  curl,  forming  more  or 
less  of  a  gall.  If  the  louse  appears  in  large  numbers,  the  leaves 
at  the  tips  of  twigs  turn  yellow,  rendering  the  trees  very  unsightly. 

Life  History. — Eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall  in  cracks  and  crevices 
of  the  bark.  The  young  hatch  in  the  spring  and  crawl  to  the  ter- 


FIG.   2S8. — The  larch  saw  fly;  below,  caterpillar,  after  Ruggles;  above,  male  saw  fly. 

minal  twigs.  The  life  history,  in  a  general  way,  corresponds  to 
that  of  other  plant  lice. 

Control. — At  the  first  appearance  of  lice  in  the  spring,  infested 
twigs  should  be  cut  off  and  burned,  thus  preventing  the  many 
summer  broods. 

The  Larch  Saw-Fly. — This  saw-fly  (Lygaconenatus  erichsonii 
Hart)  is  one-half  an  inch  long,  with  a  blackish  body  and  a  red 
band  across  the  middle  of  the  abdomen  (Fig.  288).  The  larva  is 
a  pale-green  worm  of  about  the  same  length. 

Injury. — It  feeds  upon  our  tamaracks,  hemlocks,  and  larches. 
This  insect  is  one  of  the  most  injurious  forms  found  working  on 
shade  trees.  It  defoliates  vast  areas,  killing  the  trees  and  causing 


286  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


FIG.  289. — Maple  trees  on  village  street,  infested  with  cottony  maple  scale. 


COTTONY  MAPLE  SCALE 


287 


great  loss  to  the  lumber  industry.  It  appears  to  be  increasing 
and  spreading  over  a  large  territory. 

Its  control  in  the  forest  probably  depends  upon  encouraging 
its  natural  enemies,  animal  parasites,  and  fungus  pests.  Orna- 
mental larch  trees  may  be  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead. 

Cottony  Maple  Scale  (Pulvinaria  innumerabiles  Rath.). — The 
adult  insect  is  nearly  one-half  an  inch  long  and  the  scale  is  oval. 
It  is  conspicuous  because,  from  underneath  it,  protrudes  a  mass  of 
white  cottony  secretion  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid  (Fig.  290). 
The  young  lice  hatch  in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  migrating 


FIG.   290. — Cottony  maple  scale. 

at  once  to  the  leaves,  and  there  becoming  temporarily  attached. 
A  number  of  moults  occur  while  they  are  on  the  leaves.  Fertili- 
zation of  females  by  males  occurs  here,  the  impregnated  female 
migrating  to  the  twigs.  The  following  spring  the  developed  eggs 
cause  the  body  of  the  female  to  increase  in  size.  Late  in  spring 
and  early  summer  these  eggs  are  laid  in  the  cottony  growth  above 
referred  to.  One  female  may  produce  from  one  thousand  to  two 
thousand  eggs. 

Injury. — This  pest  is  at  times  injuriously  abundant  on  maples 
and  elms,  as  well  as  various  shrubs  and  vines.  It  may  occur  on 
oak,  basswood,  locust,  sumach,  woodbine,  currant,  and  other 


288 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


shrubs.  Maple  trees  in  towns  and  villages  are  sometimes  killed 
by  its  attacks  (Fig.  289).  The  English  or  European  sparrows,  so 
abundant  everywhere,  are  disseminators  of  this  scale  among  shade 
trees,  the  young  scale  being  carried  on  the  feet  of  sparrows, 
although  the  active  young  can  crawl  from  branch  to  branch. 


^/^fll/ 


FIG.   291. — Gipsy   moth,   female.      Natural 
size.     (After  Forbush  and  Fernald.) 


FIG.   292. — Egg  cluster  of  gipsy  moth. 


Other  insects  may  also  be  carriers;  they  may  also  be  carried  by 
infected  twigs  and  leaves  blown  about  by  the  wind. 

Control. — If  trees  are  trimmed  in  winter  and  early  spring  and 
the  cuttings  burned,  the  adult  scales  on  the  cuttings  and  thou- 
sands of  eggs  will  be  destroyed.  Pruning  and  burning  may  be 
done  in  late  summer  or  fall.  Spraying  with  tobacco  extract  and 
soap  in  spring  when  young  lice  are  crawling  over  the  branches  and 
leaves  will  reduce  their  numbers.  Strong  caustic  sprays  in  winter 
when  trees  are  dormant  will  kill  the  adult  scales.  When  but  few 


I 


FIG.   293. — Caterpillar  of  gipsy  rnoth. 


FIG.  294. — Brown-tail  moth. 


are  present  on  a  vine  or  shrub  they  may  be  easily  controlled  with 
a  bucket  sprayer  or  even  killed  by  touching  them  with  kerosene. 
The  Gipsy  Moth  and  Brown-tail  Moth. — These  have  become 
pests  of  national  importance,  although  at  present  confined  to 
some  of  the  eastern  states.  The  gipsy  moth  (Porthetria  dispar 
Linn.)  was  introduced  and  accidentally  distributed  about  1868-69. 
It  has  now  spread  over  most  of  New  England.  The  male  is  brown, 


GIPSY  MOTH  AND  BROWN-TAIL  MOTH 


289 


considerably  smaller  than  the  female,  which  is  white,  its  wings 
marked  by  delicate,  undulating  dark  lines  (Fig.  291).  Egg  masses 
(Fig.  292)  are  deposited  in  the  early  summer  on  bark,  fences, 
stone  walls,  stone  piles,  and  in  similar  places.  They  hatch  the 
following  year.  The  caterpillar  is  shown  hi  figure  293. 


'H«  (In 
FIG.   295. — Brown-tail  moth  caterpillar. 


FIG.  296. — Egg  clusters  of  brown-tail  moth 
on  under  side  of  leaf. 


The  brown-tail  moth  (Euprodris  chrysorrhea  Linn.)  imported 
from  Europe  about  twenty-five  years  later  than  the  gipsy  moth, 
is  also  well  distributed  throughout  New  England.  The  moths 
(Fig.  294)  are  white,  with  a  conspicuous  brown  tuft  on  the  end  of 
the  abdomen.  The  hairs  of  the  larva  (Fig.  295)  are  barbed,  and 
cause  severe  irritation  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  skin. 
These  moths  also  lay  their  eggs  in  masses  (Fig.  296) ,  covering  the 
same  with  brown  hairs,  but,  unlike  the  gipsy  moth,  their  eggs 
hatch  the  same  season  and  the  larvae  live  in  colonies  (Figs.  297  and 
298)  on  leaves,  forming  a  nest  of  leaves  in  the  fall,  in  which  they 
pass  the  winter,  completing  their  development  the  following  year. 

Like  other  introduced  species,  these  insects  have  increased 
wonderfully  in  numbers,  and  are  to-day  perhaps  the  worst  insect 


FIG.   297. — Winter   nest  of   brown-tail   moth    caterpillars;    a   mass    of   Ira  VPS   and    silk  at 

ends  of  twigs. 

enemy  of  shade  trees.  They  have,  in  the  New  England  states, 
already  destroyed  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  property,  defoliating 
whole  tracts  of  shade  trees. 

Control. — Arsenate  of  lead  sprays  are  effective  for  both  of 
the  above  insects.  In  the  case  of  the  brown-tail  moth  the  nests 
should  be  removed  from  the  trees  and  burned  during  late  fall 
and  winter.  In  combating  the  gipsy  moth,  traps  are  employed, 
such  as  burlap  bands  and  tanglefoot.  Egg  clusters  may  be  touched 
with  creosote. 
19 


290 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


The  gipsy  moth  is  particularly  dangerous  to  oaks,  willows, 
and  apples.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  young  caterpillars 
will  not  attack  cedars,  pines,  and  hemlocks.  While  young  they 


1 


FIG.  298. — Young  brown-tail  moth  caterpillars  emerging  from  winter  web  and  feeding  on 
the  dead  leaves  composing  its  surface.     (After  Sanderson.) 

have  to  find  deciduous  woods.  If,  therefore,  all  such  are  removed 
from  the  vicinity  of  pines,  the  latter  will  be  protected.  Marked 
progress  in  combating  the  gipsy  moth  is  being  made  along  the 
line  of  imported  parasites. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  life  history,  habits,  and  methods  of  control  of  the  box  elder  bug. 

2.  Do  the  same  with  the  bronze  birch  borer. 

3.  What  is  the  so-called  alder  "blight"? 

4.  Mention  some  galls  of  shade  trees  made  by  insects,  and  describe  those 

with  which  you  are  familiar.    What  insect-made  galls  have  you  observed 
on  shrubs  or  other  plants? 

5.  Describe  the  two  willow  saw-flies  and  their  larvse. 

6.  Give  briefly  the  life  history  of  the  white  pine  weevil. 

7.  Describe  the  pine  bark  aphid. 

8.  Give  life  history  of  the  oak  pruner. 

9.  Give  description  and  habits  of  the  mourning-cloak  and  its  larvae. 

10.  Give  description,   life  history,  habits,  and  methods  of  control  for  the 

cottony  maple  scale. 

11.  Which  of  the  above  pests  are  numerous  and  destructive  in  your  locality? 

12.  Describe  the  work  of  the  gipsy  and  brown-tailed  moths. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

THIS  chapter  presents  remedies  intended  to  help  the  house- 
keeper in  her  warfare  against  insect  pests,  and  also  deals  with  those 
insects  or  insect-like  animals  which  are  directly  injurious  to  man- 
kind, either  by  causing  discomfort  and  annoyance  to  man  himself, 
or  hi  being  disease  carriers. 

The  Case-making  Clothes-Moth. — This  widely  distributed 
moth  (Tinea  pellionella  Linn.)  is  grayish  yellow  in  color.  The 
larva  or  caterpillar,  which  feeds  upon  woollens,  furs,  and  feathers, 
is  a  dull  white  with  a  brown  head.  The  larva  is  always  observed 
in  a  "case"  made  by  its  weaving  together  particles  from  the  cloth 
or  other  material  in  which  it  is  working.  The  head  and  first  seg- 
ment may  be  extended  from  the  case.  This  case,  which  the  larva 
drags  about  as  it  feeds,  increases  hi  size  as  the  larva  grows.  When 
the  caterpillar  is  full  grown  the  case  is  fastened  to  the  infested 
garments  by  a  silken  web  and  the  larva  changes  to  a  pupa  within, 
the  pupal  stage  lasting  about  three  weeks. 

The  adult  has  an  irregular  flight;  it  is  frequently  seen  flying 
in  the  evening  lamp  light,  but  is  usually  found  hiding'ln  dark 
places  among  garments,  either  stored  in  drawers  or  hanging  in 
closets.  The  very  minute  eggs  are  placed  on  the  material  intended 
as  food  for  the  larvae. 

Control. — A  thorough  housecleaning  once  or  twice  a  year 
does  much  to  keep  down  pests  of  this  nature.  Rugs  or  carpets 
should  be  aired  and  beaten.  Furs  kept  below  forty  degrees  F. 
are  not  injured,  and  many  commercial  houses  offer  opportunities 
of  such  storage  to  their  customers.  The  writer  stores  what  furs 
and  woollens  need  protecting  in  summer  in  a  large  iron  box  with 
a  tight  cover,  and  three  or  four  times  during  the  late  spring  and 
summer  places  a  few  teaspoonfuls  of  carbon  bisulfid  in  a  flat  dish 
on  top  of  the  clothing,  keeping  the  box  tightly  closed  during  this 
fumigation.  Closets  with  perfectly  tight  doors  might  be  utilized 
in  the  same  way  as  a  chest.  Frequently  furs,  feathers,  or  valuable 
woollens  are  put  up  in  sealed  bags  made  of  heavy  paper,  and 
repellents  such  as  tobacco,  camphor  or  naphthaline  are  placed 
inside.  It  should  be  noted  that  these  repellents  do  not  kill,  but 
simply  assist,  frequently  to  only  a  limited  degree,  in  keeping 

291 


292    INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

moths  away.  They  will  not  drive  away  the  larvae  after  they  are 
hatched. 

The  Webbing  Clothes-Moth. — This  is  a  second  species  of 
clothes  moth  (Tineola  biselliella  Hummel),  which  is  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  insect  by  the  absence  of  the  larval  case.  A 
silken  web,  however,  is  spun  from  the  material  wherever  the  larvae 
are  working.  The  species  generally  has  two  broods.  The  second 
brood  of  larvae  work  in  the  latter  part  of  the  hot  weather.  When 
the  larva  is  full  grown  it  makes  a  cocoon  of  silk  or  woollen  particles 
and  changes  to  a  pupa  within. 

The  measures  of  control  are  the  same  as  for  the  preceding 
species.  Figure  299  illustrates  the  larva  and  its  moth.  Figure  300 
is  a  clothes-moth  larva  as  seen  under  a  microscope. 


FIG.   299. — Clothes  moth,  Tineola  bisel-  FIG.   300. — Larva  of  clothes  moth.     Much 

liella.    Hair  lines  indicate  exact  size.     (After  enlarged. 

Riley.) 

The  Carpet  Beetle,  Buffalo  Bug,  or  "Buffalo  Moth."— This  is 
a  small  beetle  (Anthrenus  serophularice  Linn.),  not  over  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  length,  blackish,  with  red  and  white  markings.  It 
normally  passes  the  winter  under  the  bark  of  trees.  It  finds  its  way 
into  the  house  in  the  spring  and  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  carpets  or 
on  clothing.  Two  or  three  broods  occur  in  a  single  season.  The 
young  grubs  are  hairy  creatures  and  rejoice  in  the  fanciful  name 
of  "  buffalo  bug"  (Fig.  301). 

Injury. — In  the  larval  stage  injury  is  caused  by  their  feeding 
on  carpets,  clothing,  or  upholstered  articles. 

Control. — Once  established,  this  pest  is  difficult  to  remove. 
Infested  carpets  should  be  taken  up  and  steamed,  the  floors  cleaned, 
and  the  cracks  treated  with  gasoline.  If  the  carpets  cannot  be 
removed,  use  gasoline  on  the  infested  parts.  The  usual  precau- 


BED-BUG 


293 


tion  against  lights  being  brought  near  gasoline  should  be  observed. 
This  moth  is  seldom  found  in  houses  with  polished  floors  and 
removable  rugs. 

The  Black  Carpet  Beetle. — The  habits  of  the  black  carpet 
beetle  (Attagenus  piceus  Oliv.)  (Fig.  302)  are  practically  the  same 
as  those  of  the  preceding  species,  and  its  extermination  calls  for 
similar  treatment. 

The  Bed-Bug. — This  well-known  household  pest  (Cimex  lec- 
tularius  Linn.)  needs  no  specific  description.  Its  eggs  are  deposited 
in  cracks  of  bedsteads  and  base  boards,  sometimes  in  picture 
frames  and  in  mattresses.  About  eight  days  are  required  for 
hatching,  and  if  the  young  bugs  get  an  abundance  of  food  they 


FIG.   301. — The  carpet  beetle:  a,  larva;  b,  larval  skin  showing  pupa  within;  c,  pupa;  d,  adult. 

(After  Riley.) 

complete  their  growth  after  five  moults,  becoming  adults  in  about 
forty-five  days.  The  days  are  spent  in  hiding  places;  at  night  the 
young  and  adults  come  out  to  feed  (Fig.  303). 

Control. — Like  other  household  bisects,  if  once  established, 
bed-bugs  are  hard  to  eradicate.  Even  a  most  careful  housekeeper 
is  liable  to  find  them  established  in  the  servants'  quarters,  if 
careful  supervision  is  not  maintained.  Badly  infested  buildings 
should  be  fumigated  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  This  calls  for 
two  fumigations  at  intervals  of  about  twelve  days.  The  author 
has  used  this  method  successfully.  Fumigation  with  sulfur 
candles  is  only  partially  effective.  Gasoline  may  be  used  freely 
in  every  crack  where  these  pests  might  be  expected  and  in  every 
tuft  of  the  mattress.  Special  precautions  must  be  taken,  in  using 
this  agent,  against  accident  by  fire.  Gasoline  might  possibly 


294  INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

affect  paint  and  varnishes  if  used  too  freely.  It  will  not  destroy 
the  eggs;  a  treatment  of  gasoline,  therefore,  should  be  repeated 
in  about  two  weeks  after  the  first  treatment.  A  good  and  very 
poisonous  compound  may  be  made  by  dissolving  two  ounces  of 
powdered  corrosive  sublimate  in  one  pint  of  water,  allowing  it  to 
stand  two  days;  then  add  an  equal  quantity  of  alcohol  and  shake 
thoroughly.  This  may  be  applied  with  an  oil  can  in  every  crevice 
and  crack  in  the  bedstead.  Kerosene  applied  in  the  same  way  as 


FIG.   302. — Black  carpet  beetle,  larva,  and 
imago.     Much  enlarged. 


FIG.   303.— The  common  bed-bug.       Much 
enlarged.     (Lugger.) 


gasoline  is  also  effective.  The  bed-bug  is  capable  of  going  a  long 
time  without  food. 

Crickets  (Gryllus  sp.). — The  different  species  of  crickets  are 
almost  too  common  to  warrant  detailed  description.  They  vary 
in  color  from  brownish  to  black,  the  variation  depending  upon  the 
species.  In  the  females  the  ovipositor  is  as  long  as,  or  longer  than, 
the  abdomen  (Fig.  304). 

Injury. — These  insects  occasionally  make  their  way  into  the 
house  and  become  pests.  In  such  cases  they  eat  clothing,  espe- 
cially if  it  is  a  little  damp,  and  they  also  attack  foodstuffs.  When 


COCKROACHES 


295 


they  do  not  cause  injury,  they  are  usually  welcome,  and  the 
chirping  of  the  cricket  on  the  hearth  has  figured  in  song  and  story. 

Control. — If  they  become  injurious,  pieces  of  potatoes  or  carrots 
thoroughly  poisoned  with  arsenic  will  make  good  exterminators. 
Sweetened  and  poisoned  liquids  are  also  effective,  and  vessels 
filled  with  beer  or  other  liquid  placed  in  localities  where  they 
occur  make  effective  traps. 

Cockroaches. — These  are  the  well-known  Croton  bugs  (Blatella 
germanica  Linn.)  found  about  pantries  and  kitchens,  particularly 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  sink.  They  are  light  brown  or  dull  yellow. 
Except  in  warm  buildings,  they  are  dormant  during  the  winter. 
In  the  spring  the  females  are  observed  dragging  about  their  egg 


FIG.  304. — Crickets:    1  and  2,  adults;  4,  nymph.     Under  1,  crickets  just  hatched. 

cases,  these  being  carried  until  the  eggs  are  about  ready  to  hatch 
(Fig.  305).  The  young  grow  very  slowly  and  are  without  wings 
until  late  in  the  fall. 

A  Serious  Pest. — This  disgusting  pest  may  be  the  means  of 
spreading  disease,  and  no  good  housekeeper  will  tolerate  its  pres- 
ence. It  is  well  to  remember  that  if  once  allowed  to  get  a  start 
in  the  house  they  are  extremely  difficult  to  eradicate. 

Control. — Where  the  infestation  is  very  bad,  the  best  remedy 
is  to  fumigate  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  if  the  house  stands  by 
itself,  so  that  other  households  are  not  involved.  Burn  sulfur 
in  sealed  rooms.  This  is  a  desirable  method  of  destroying  these 
insects.  It  should  be  repeated  frequently  for  two  or  three  weeks 
to  get  lasting  effects.  Fumigation  should  take  place  before  egg- 
laying  occurs  or  after  the  eggs  are  hatched.  Powdered  borax 


,-l, 

BBBBBI 

FlQ.  305. — Cockroaches.     (Original.) 


BACON  OR  HAM  BEETLE 


297 


spread  along  the  mop  boards  of  the  kitchen  and  about  the  sink 
every  night  for  a  week  or  more  has  been  found  efficacious  in  caus- 
ing the  pests  to  disappear.  One  housekeeper  also  reported  success 
with  powdered  borax  spread  on  bread  or  banana  and  placed  where 
the  roaches  can  feed  on  this  poison.  A  good  bait  is  made  by  mixing 
equal  parts  of  sweet  chocolate  and  powdered  borax.  This  should 
be  scattered  where  the  roaches  are  plentiful.  Several  proprietary 
articles  for  the  control  of  this  insect  are  on  the  market,  some  of 


FIG.  306. — The  bacon  or  ham  beetle,  larva  and  adult.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

them  being  regarded  as  very  good.  Where  the  pest  occurs  in 
apartment  buildings,  the  problem  of  eradication  becomes  more 
difficult  on  account  of  the  easy  means  of  communication  between 
the  floors.  Cockroaches  appear  to  avoid  arsenical  poisons.  Squirt 
gasoline  behind  base  boards,  in  cracks,  and  all  hiding  places. 

Bacon  or  Ham  Beetle. — This  is  a  stout  black  beetle  (Dermestes 
lardarius  Linn.),  something  less  than  one-half  of  an  inch  long, 
with  a  band  of  grayish-yellow  scales  covering  half  the  back. 
The  larva  is  a  worm-like  grub;  when  full  grown  it  is  brown  and 
hairy  (Fig.  306).  The  adults  are  found  abundantly  during  early 


298   INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

summer,  and  if  they  have  access  to  food,  they  lay  their  eggs  thereon. 
Therein  the  larvae  hatch,  feed,  and  pupate.  The  pupal  stage  lasts 
four,  five,  or  more  days.  Several  broods  are  possible  under 
favorable  conditions. 

Injury. — This  beetles  is  frequently  attracted  to  bacon  or  ham. 
It  is  also  fond  of  old  cheese.  The  fatty  portion  of  meat  is  pre- 
ferred. The  larvse  feed  on  the  surface  of  the  food  until  time  for 
pupation;  then  they  bury  themselves  below  the  surface. 

Control. — General  cleanliness  in  housekeeping  is  desirable. 
Food  may  be  kept  in  insect-proof  receptacles.  An  infested  piece 
of  meat  may  be  treated  by  cutting  away  the  infested  portion  and 
washing  the  cut  surface  with  a  very  dilute  solution  of  carbolic 
acid.  These  beetles  may  be  very  easily  trapped  with  pieces  of 
meat  and  old  cheese.  Badly  infested  buildings  should  be  thor- 


FIQ.  307.— The  drug  store  beetle:    a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c  and  d,  adults.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

oughly  cleaned,  and  may  be  fumigated  with  bisulfid  of  carbon 
or  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

The  Drug  Store  Beetle,  or  "Death  Watch."— This  insect 
(Sitrodrepa  panicea  Linn.),  when  working  in  wood,  causes  a  tick- 
ing sound  which  has  suggested  to  the  mind  of  the  superstitious 
the  name  of  "death  watch."  The  beetle  is  stout,  light  brown 
in  color,  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  It  has  a  retractile  head 
(Fig.  307) .  The  larva  is  grub-like  and  occurs  in  the  same  material 
in  which  the  adults  are  found. 

Injury. — The  beetle  is  practically  omnivorous.  It  is  found  in 
mills,  granaries,  and  warehouses,  as  well  as  in  the  dwelling  houses. 
It  lives  on  flour,  meal,  cereal^,  condiments,  roots,  herbs,  and  animal 
substances.  It  has  been  known  to  colonize  on  a  human  skeleton, 
dried,  with  the  ligaments  attached.  It  has  also  been  recorded 
as  perforating  tin  foil  or  sheet  lead. 


THE  LITTLE  RED  ANT  299 

Control. — Infested  material  may  be  heated  to  125  or  150 
degrees  F.,  allowing  sufficient  time  at  this  temperature  for  the 
heat  to  penetrate  the  material.  The  fumes  of  carbon  bisulfid 
will  also  kill  the  beetle. 

The  Cigarette  Beetle  (Lasioderma  serricorne  Fab.). — This  is 
a  light  brown  beetle,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  (Fig.  308),  which 
infests  tobacco,  cigarettes,  and  a  great  variety  of  foodstuffs,  as 
well  as  condiments,  drugs,  and  dried  herbarium  specimens. 

When  abundant  and  injurious,  materials  offering  it  food  supply 
should  be  kept  in  insect-proof  receptacles.  Heat  can  be  used  to 
destroy  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the  drug  store  beetle.  (See  page  221, 
under  Tobacco  insects.) 

The  White-marked  Spider  Beetle.— This  is  a  small,  reddish- 
brown  beetle  (Ptinus  fur  Linn.)  with  four  white  marks  on  the  wing- 


FIG.  308. — The  cigarette  beetle:  a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c  and  d,  adults;  c,  antenna.    (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

covers.  The  antennae  or  feelers  are  long,  and  the  legs  are  long 
and  slender,  resembling  the  legs  of  a  spider.  The  body  is  more  or 
less  globular. 

Injury. — Both  the  adults  and  larvae  feed  on  dried  fruits  and 
animal  substances,  as  well  as  upon  cereals,  flour,  insect  collections, 
dried  plants,  red  pepper,  cotton  seed,  refuse  wool,  furs,  clothing, 
roots,  grains,  stuffed  animals,  etc. 

Control. — Infested  material  may  be  freed  by  heat  or,  if  prac- 
ticable, by  fumigation  with  carbon  bisulfid.  Museum  specimens 
are  generally  protected  by  rendering  them  inaccessible  to  the  in- 
sect. As  in  the  majority  of  household  pests,  food  material  which 
is  left  undisturbed  for  a  long  time  is  more  likely  to  be  infested. 

The  Little  Red  Ant. — The  very  small  red  ant  (Monomorium 
pharaonis  Linn.)  (Fig.  309),  is  rarely  found  out  of  doors,  but  is 
frequently  seen  in  houses,  living  in  colonies.  When  found  in  the 
house  it  is  extremely  troublesome.  The  life  history  is,  in  a  general 


300  INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

way,  similar  to  other  ants.  Probably  egg-laying  goes  on  more  or 
less  continuously  throughout  the  warm  weather.  This  pest  may 
become  a  great  nuisance  through  infesting  food  materials,  espe- 
cially sweets. 

Control. — Various  methods  have  been  adopted  to  free  a  house 
of  this  troublesome  insect.  The  writer  has  destroyed  them  in  a 
house  from  which  the  owners  were  absent  by  fumigation  with 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  They  may  be  trapped  by  means  of  a  piece 
of  sponge  soaked  in  sweetened  water,  these  sponges  being  picked 
up  when  full  of  ants  and  dropped  in  boiling  water.  Scraps  of 
bone  or  meat  may  be  used  in  the  same  way  and  burned. 

A  poison  solution  may  be  made  as  follows :   Dissolve  5  pounds 
sugar  in  1 J/2  pints  of  warm  water.    Add  %  ounce  of  sodium  arse- 
nite,  dissolved  in  a  little  hot  water.     Sponges 
may  be  moistened  with  this  solution  and  placed 
in  cans  with  holes  punched  in  the  lids.    The 
position  of  these  baits  should  be  occasionally 
changed.     This  poison  is  slow  in  acting.    The 
ants  eat  it  and  carry  it  to  the  nests,  where  it  is 
used  to  feed  their  young.    It  is  to  be  noted  that 
this  bait  would  be  poisonous  to  human  beings. 
Pantry  shelves  painted  with   a  saturated 
solution  of  alum  appear  to  defy  these  insects. 
Refrigerators,  tables,  or  cabinets  may  be  insu- 
FIG.  309.— The   little  lated  by  placing  the  legs  in  dishes  and  pans  of 
eSargedh°use  antf  much  water.    As  with  other  ants,  for  complete  relief 
it  is  necessary  to  destroy  the  egg-producing 
queens,  and  if  a  nest  of  this  species  can  be  found  relief  can  be 
immediately  obtained  by  squirting  kerosene,  gasoline,  or  carbon 
bisulfid  into  the  nest  with  an  oil  can  or  with  a  syringe. 

"Silver  Fish"  or  "Fish  Moth."— This  is  the  quick-moving, 
delicate,  wingless,  silver-gray  insect  (Lepisma  saccharina  Linn.), 
often  observed  on  opening  a  bureau  drawer  or  in  an  unused  room. 
When  touched  it  sheds  glistening  gray  scales.  It  is  one-half  inch 
long,  the  head  bearing  two  long  feelers  or  antennae.  At  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  insect  are  three  long  filaments. 

Injury. — The  "silver  fish/'  which  represents  a  very  low  order 
of  insects,  lives  in  dark  places  among  undisturbed  books  or  stored 
linen  or  silk  or  paper,  or  where  any  stored  substance  may  be 
obtained  for  food.  It  has  been  known  to  completely  ruin  silk 
dresses  put  away  for  a  long  period.  (See  Fig  11,  page  15.) 


HOUSE-FLY  OR  TYPHOID  FLY  301 

Control. — Frequent  handling  of  the  articles  liable  to  attack  is 
the  best  remedy,  for  the  "silver  fish"  does  not  like  to  be  disturbed. 
Naphthaline  crystals  scattered  about  where  it  may  be  present 
form  a  good  preventive.  Housecleaning  and  treatment  with  gaso- 
line is  the  best  method  against  infestation.  The  insect  may  be 
poisoned  by  soaking  cardboard  in  thick  flour  paste  in  which  Paris 
green  has  been  mixed,  and  placing  pieces  of  the  cardboard  where 
the  insects  are  most  abundant. 

Book  Lice. — These  are  wingless  insects  (Atropos  sp.,  and 
Clothilla  sp.),  almost  colorless,  very  small,  and  barely  evident  to 
the  naked  eye.  They  live  upon  vegetable  matter  and  may  be 
frequently  found  in  books  or  among  starched  linens  which  have 
been  laid  away.  Also  they  have  been  known  to  occur  in  great 
numbers  in  mattresses  stuffed  with  horse-hair  or  straw. 

Control. — For  infestation  of  mattresses,  the  only  means  of 
control  is  by  destroying  the  mattress  or  by  fumigating  it.  Book 
lice  do  not  ordinarily  occur  in  frequented  places,  especially  if  well 
lighted  and  ventilated.  Thorough  scrubbing  of  woodwork  and 
furniture  is  desirable.  Dust  and  brush  infested  bedding  and  cloth- 
ing. Supplement  the  cleaning  by  applications  of  gasoline  in  cracks 
and  crevices  not  otherwise  reached. 

The  House-Fly  or  Typhoid  Fly.- — This  common  household  pest 
(Musca  domestica  Linn.),  it  should  be  noted,  never  bites.  Its  food 
is  always  taken  in  a  moist  condition  aud  is  first  dissolved  by  the 
fly;  it  rasps  the  surface  with  its  tongue,  pouring  out  upon  it  liquid 
from  glands  or  crop,  or  both,  and  after  a  solution  of  food  is  made 
in  this  way  it  sucks  it  into  its  crop.  This  fly  is  often  confused  with 
the  stable-fly  entering  our  houses  in  the  late  summer  or  autumn; 
the  latter  is  capable  of  stabbing  the  surface  upon  which  it  lies. 
It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  there  are  several  species  of  fly 
resembling  house-flies,  but  smaller. 

A  Bad  Pest. — It  is  a  most  disgusting  and  injurious  pest,  known 
to  carry  germs  of  typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis,  cholera,  dysentery, 
and  probably  many  other  disease  germs  (Fig.  310).  The  typhoid 
germ  may  live  three  weeks  in  the  intestine  of  a  fly,  and  fly-specks 
are  potential  breeders  of  disease.  It  should  be  noted  that  this 
insect  is  a  conveyor  of  germs,  and  not  an  incubator  or  secondary 
host.  Germs  are  picked  up  in  filth  and  carried  to  foodstuffs, 
exposed  groceries,  and  all  accessible  eatables. 

Life  History. — The  house-fly,  by  preference,  breeds  in  fresh 
horse  manure,  but  will  lay  its  eggs  in  any  form  of  filth:  human 


302   INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

excrement,  spittoons,  decaying  vegetable  matter,  and  garbage  of 
all  sorts.  Eggs  are  deposited  in  groups  of  100  or  more,  and  the 
female  may  lay  several  groups  of  eggs  before  dying.  These  eggs 
hatch  in  twenty-four  or  more  hours,  depending  upon  temperature. 
The  maggot  stage  lasts  a  week,  and  the  pupal  stage  also  about  a 
weeks.  Adults  (Fig.  311)  may  differ  in  size,  due  possibly  to  a 
difference  in  kind  and  quality  of  food  supply.  It  is  estimated  that 
one  pound  of  horse  manure  will  produce  1200  flies.  The  house-fly 
cannot  fly  a  long  distance,  but  it  is  carried  passively  on  street  cars, 


FIG.   310. — Petri  dish  containing  agar  over  which  a  fly  was  allowed  to  walk.     White  spots  are 
colonies  of  bacteria  coming  from  germs  left  by  the  fly  when  crawling  over  the  jelly. 

horse  vehicles,  on  trains,  ships,  delivery  wagons,  and  by  other 
means,  and,  once  started  in  a  community  previously  free,  it 
soon  is  present  in  enormous  quantities.  In  fact,  so  rapid  is  its 
increase  that  it  is  estimated  that  during  a  season  enough  flies 
arise  from  the  batches  of  eggs  laid  by  one  mother,  supposing  all 
to  live,  to  bury  the  entire  earth  four  to  seven  feet  deep.  Putting 
it  in  different  words,  enough  descendants  would  come  from  the 
laying  of  one  mother  during  the  course  of  a  season  to  go  around 
the  earth  at  the  equator,  if  placed  end  to  end,  many  times.  The 
length  of  life  of  the  adult  fly  cannot  be  stated  with  absolute 
accuracy.  It  may  live  three  weeks  or  longer. 


HOUSE  FLY  OR  TYPHOID  FLY 


303 


Control. — It  is  evident  from  the  above  that  all  breeding  places 
and  all  accumulations  of  filth  should  be  removed  at  least  once  a 
week.  Manure  piles  should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  behind 
livery  stables  or  private  barns.  Prompt  disposal  of  garbage  should 
be  regulated  by  law,  and  communities  should  be  instructed  as  to 
the  dangers  arising  from  toleration  of  the  house-fly,  and  in  methods 
leading  to  relief.  Trapping  flies  is  only  a  minor  method  of  treat- 
ment. Energy  should  be  bent  more  particularly  upon  cleaning  up 


FIG.   311.  —  The  house  fly:  a,  adult  male;  b,  proboscis  and  pulp  of  same;  c,   terminal 

iracle. 


joints  of  antennae;  d,  head  of  female;  e,  puparum;  /,  anterior  spi 
(After  L.  O.  Howard,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


All  much  enlarged. 


the  neighborhood.  Where  imperative,  sticky  fly-paper  is  more 
advisable  than  poison  fly-paper.  Flies  may  be  poisoned  by  placing 
in  likely  places  shallow  plates  containing  a  solution  made  by  pour- 
ing three  teaspoonfuls  of  formalin  into  a  half-pint  of  water  to 
which  one-half  pint  of  milk  has  been  added.  Houses  and  porches 
should  be  screened  in  the  summer.  For  very  evident  reasons,  a 
house  should  not  be  located  near  a  stable.  The  use  of  house  toilets 
with  sewage  connection  or  cesspools  is  evidently  much  more 
desirable  than  conveniences  frequently  prevailing  in  the  country. 
The  open  privy  is  a  menace  in  connection  with  the  house-fly. 


304  INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

Mosquitoes. — There  are  a  large  number  of  species  of  mosqui- 
toes in  the  United  States;  the  two  most  dangerous  are  Anopheles 
(Fig.  312),  a  particular  species  of  which  is  an  intermediary  host  for 
the  germ  of  malaria;  and  Stegomyia,  dangerous  because  it  spreads 
yellow  fever  (Fig.  313).  The  first-named  genus  is  sometimes  found 
in  localities  where  malaria  does  not  exist,  and  under  those  condi- 
tions, of  course,  it  is  not  a  dangerous  insect.  However,  all  mos- 
quitoes are  annoying,  and,  although  the  male  is  innocuous,  since 


FIG.   312. — The  malaria-bearing  mosquito.     (Lugger.) 

it  does  not  bite,  the  female  mosquito  is  the  cause  of  many  wakeful 
hours.  It  is  also  of  commercial  importance  in  certain  sections, 
in  that  it  seriously  affects  the  condition  of  stock  and  milk  cattle. 
Out-of-door  occupations  and  pleasures  in  some  localities  are  im- 
possible during  the  summer  on  account  of  the  presence  of  this 
pest. 

Life  History. — While  details  of  life  histories  vary  strikingly, 
there  being  marked  differences  in  the  length  of  life  cycles,  in  a 
general  way  we  may  include  all  species  in  making  the  statement 


MOSQUITOES  305 

that  adults  and  immature  forms  pass  the  winter  in  moist  places 
or  even  in  ice.  In  the  spring,  when  the  ice  melts,  the  transforma- 
tion is  completed  and  the  females  soon  lay  eggs  and  die.  These 
eggs  are  placed  either  on  the  surface  of  small,  shallow  pools  or 
depressions  which  hold  a  little  water,  or  upon  moist  places  where 
the  insect  instinctively  realizes  that  water  will  shortly  be  present. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that  a  couple  of  tablespoonfuls  of  water 
overlooked  in  a  tin  can  or  broken  pitcher  hidden  under  the  side- 


Fia.  313. — The  yellow  fever  mosquito,  female.     (After  L.  O.  Howard.) 

walk  or  under  shrubbery  will,  if  the  water  remains  for  eleven  or 
twelve  days,  be  sufficient  to  give  rise  to  a  hundred  or  more  of 
these  troublesome  insects.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that 
the  life  cycle  from  egg  to  adult  is  about  two  weeks  (Figs.  314  and 
315).  Probably  the  normal  food  of  mosquitoes  was  originally  the 
juices  of  tender  plants,  and  it  is  very  evident  that  comparatively 
few  of  their  numbers  ever  have  a  chance  to  feed  on  man  or  warm- 
blooded animals. 

Three  Groups  of  Mosquitoes. — In  the  case  of  the  yellow  fever 
mosquito  (Stegomyia  calopus),  which  is  a  rather  small  species,  with 
20 


306   INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

white  and  black  markings,  the  eggs  are  laid  singly,  and  not  laid 
in  raft-shaped  masses,  as  in  the  case  of  the  common  species  of 
"  house  mosquito"  (Culex  pipiens).  They  may  be  placed  in  dry 
situations  which  will  receive  water  later. 


FIG.  314. — The  life  history  of  mosquitoes:  a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  adult  leaving  pupal  ekin; 
d,  female  depositing  eggs;  P,  male.     Greatly  enlarged.     (After  Brehm.) 

The  adult  Anopheles  is  frequently  found  in  latitudes  far  north 
of  the  malarial  zone,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  states  as  far  north  as 
Minnesota.  It  is  long  and  slender  with  wings  generally  spotted. 
When  it  is  at  rest,  or  biting,  unlike  the  common  "  house  mosquito," 
it  elevates  the  posterior  part  of  its  body,  causing  beak  and  body 
to  be  in  an  almost  straight  line.  The  eggs  are  laid,  singly  or  in 
small  groups. 


MOSQUITOES  307 

The  larva,  unlike  that  of  Culex  or  Stegomyia,  is  depressed,  with 
a  small  head,  and  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  Its  breathing 
tube  is  very  short,  and  its  food  consists  of  organisms  on  or  near 
the  surface.  The  species  of  Anopheles  known  to  be  dangerous  as 
a  malarial  carrier  is  A.  maculipennis  Say.  Other  species  may  be 
found  to  be  equally  dangerous. 

Control. — That  oil  of  citronella  applied  without  dilution  to  the 
back  of  the  neck,  face,  hands,  and  wrists  upon  entering  infested 
localities  is  fairly  effective  so  long  as  it  lasts,  is  not  fanciful,  and 
it  is  one  of  the  best  repellents.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow 
citronella  to  come  in  contact  with  one's  eyes.  The  same  substance 
mixed  with  vaseline  is  more  lasting  in  its  effect.  Windows  arci 


Fio.  315. — Mosquito  larva,  showing  breathing  tube,  also  egg  mass,  and  single  egg,  all  much 

enlarged.    (Lugger.) 

doors  and  porches  of  houses  should  be  thoroughly  screened  in 
summer;  all  tanks  or  rain  barrels  should  be  either  screened  or 
treated  with  kerosene  oil.  Put  a  thin  film  on  the  surface.  Tin 
cans,  broken  dishes,  etc.,  which  hold  water  should  not  be  allowed 
to  accumulate  in  rubbish  piles  or  elsewhere.  Eavestroughs 
dammed  by  leaves  and  twigs  form  good  breeding  places,  as  do 
also  tracks  of  stock  around  drinking  troughs  or  small  indentations 
along  the  shore  of  pond  or  lake,  as  well  as  the  drain  ditches  hi  the 
fields  where  water  stands.  Standing  water  in  ditches  or  pools 
suggests  the  following  methods  of  treatment.  The  water  may  be 
drained  away,  or  a  film  of  kerosene  may  be  sprayed  or  allowed 
to  flow  over  the  surface.  Depressions  may  be  filled  with  earth. 
Small  fish  may  be  introduced  into  ponds,  since  the  latter  prey 
upon  immature  forms  of  mosquitoes.  Rooms  may  be  freed  by 


308    INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

moistening  pyrethrum  powder  and  moulding  the  same  into  a 
cone  the  size  of  a  chocolate  drop,  allowing  it  to  dry  and  applying 
a  match  to  the  apex  of  the  cone.  This  stupefies  or  repels  the  mos- 
quitoes, although  it  may  not  kill  them.  Affected  mosquitoes 
should  be  swept  up  and  burned.  Chinese  "joss  sticks"  burned 
in  sleeping  rooms  act  as  repellents. 

House  Fleas. — Where  cats  or  dogs  are  kept  or  have  been  kept, 
the  household  is  apt  to  be  troubled  by  one  or  both  of  these  insect 
pests  (Pulex  irritans  L.  and  Ctenocephalus  canis  Curtis).  They 
are  almost  too  well  known  to  need  description.  The  first-named 
species  is  common  throughout  Europe  and  quite  plentiful  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  it  also  occurs  in  localities  in  the  Middle  West.  The 

last  named,  which  is  the  com- 
mon cat  or  dog  flea,  is  more 
common  in  the  house  than  the 
human  flea  (Fig.  316).  A 
house  which  has  lodged  a  cat 
or  dog  and  been  left  unoccu- 


FIG.  316.  —  At  left,  human  flea,  greatly  enlarged.     At  right,  egg  (a)  and  larva  (b)  of  dog  and 
cat  flea,  much  enlarged. 


pied  for  a  time  may  become  badly  infested.  One  can  hardly 
realize  the  unending  appetites  and  activity  of  these  insects  unless 
he  has  suffered  therefrom. 

Life  History.  —  The  female  deposits,  on  an  average,  eight  hun- 
dred eggs  during  its  lifetime,  laying  from  twelve  to  twenty  at 
one  time.  These  are  placed  in  cracks  of  floors,  dark  corners,  or 
where  dead  organic  matter  is  left  undisturbed  for  a  time.  In 
warm  weather  they  hatch  in  about  six  days.  The  white  larvas 
have  antennae  or  feelers  but  no  eyes,  which  is  unusual  for  immature 
forms  of  insects.  They  soon  become  yellowish,  later  brownish, 
and  reach  full  growth  in  eleven  days,  thereupon  forming  a  loose 
cocoon  of  dust,  etc.,  in  which  they  transform  to  pupa.  The  adult 
appears  in  from  ten  to  twelve  days.  Several  broods  occur  during 
the  warm  weather. 


THE  HARVEST  MITE  OR  "JIGGER"  309 

Control. — Where  cats  and  dogs  are  absent  there  is  not  much 
danger  of  serious  trouble.  If  pets  are  kept,  a  rug  or  mat  should  be 
provided  for  the  animal  to  sleep  on,  and  this  should  be  given 
frequent  shakings  and  brushings.  Bedding  where  pets  have 
slept  which  is  suspected  of  harboring  these  bisects  should  be 
burned.  In  badly  infested  houses  where  carpets  are  used,  these 
should  be  taken  up  and  the  floors  washed  thoroughly  with  hot 
soapsuds,  the  cracks  being  sprayed  with  gasoline  or  kerosene. 
General  cleanliness,  thorough  ventilation  of  rooms,  and  the  use  of 
insect  powder,  repeated  if  necessary,  as  well  as  the  use  of  the 
vacuum  cleaner,  all  tend  to  keep  down  this  pest.  Rugs  are 
always  preferable  to  carpets  in  a  house,  for  evident  reasons.  Upon 
the  cat  or  dog  itself  pyrethrum  powder  may  be  used,  rubbing  it 


FIG.   317. — The  irritating  harvest  mite,  or  "jigger,"  on  right.     The  American  harvest  mite 
on  left.     Greatly  enlarged.     (After  Riley.) 

into  the  hairs  of  the  animal.  Bathing  with  a  solution  of  creolin 
according  to  directions  on  bottles  is  a  means  of  killing  the  pests 
and  is,  for  a  time,  repelling. 

The  Harvest  Mite,  or  "Jigger-" — This  is  an  eight-legged 
animal  when  mature.  It  has  only  six  legs  during  the  larval  stage, 
but  is  not  a  true  insect.  It  is  frequently  called  "jigger  "or  "  chigger," 
and  was  given  the  name  of  "Leptus  irritans"  by  Riley.  Its  life 
history  is  at  present  a  matter  of  investigation.  It  lives  on  low 
vegetation  in  more  or  less  wooded  areas,  and  must  be  dependent 
upon  vegetable  tissues,  although  plants  are  forsaken  immediately 
for  a  warm-blooded  animal  when  opportunity  affords.  This  mite 
(Fig.  317)  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  so-called  " jigger  flea" 
or  " chigoe"  (Sarcopsylla  penetrans  Linn.),  the  female  of  which 
burrows  into  the  flesh  of  the  host. 


310  INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

Injury.— These  minute  pests  bore  into  the  skin  of  human 
beings,  causing,  about  twenty-four  hours  after  the  attack,  intense 
itching  at  the  point  of  infestation,  which  point  is  marked  by  a  red 
patch  varying  from  the  size  of  a  dime  to  that  of  a  quarter  of  a 
dollar.  Sometimes  the  itching  is  almost  intolerable,  and  it  may 
last  several  days. 

Control. — Itching  may  sometimes  be  allayed  by  applying  at 
the  very  first  appearance  moderately  strong  ammonia.  Another 
application  is  a  super-saturated  solution  of  baking  soda.  If  one 
suspects  that  he  has  been  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  this  pest,  an 
immediate  hot  bath  with  an  abundance  of  soap  and  a  change  of 
all  clothing  will  frequently  ward  off  a  disagreeable  experience. 
These  pests  prefer  shady  localities,  and  in  proportion  as  under- 
growth and  weeds  are  cleared  off  and  sunshine  allowed  to  pene- 
trate, the  pest  disappears.  Application  of  kerosene  to  low  shrub- 
bery along  the  edge  of  woods  hi  parks  or  private  grounds  will 
lessen  the  evil.  The  dusting  of  Persian  insect  powder  or  powdered 
sulfur  in  the  stockings  and  under  waist-band  when  on  the  point 
of  entering  infested  locations  will  do  much  to  prevent  attack. 

The  Confused  Flour  Beetle  (Tribolium  confusum  Duv.). — 
This  small  pest  occasionally  finds  its  way  into  the  household, 
causing  much  annoyance  to  the  housekeeper.  The  source  should 
be  sought  with  the  grocer,  who,  in  turn,  should  seek  it  in  the  mill 
or  warehouse  from  which  infested  flour  was  obtained.  The  beetle 
is  a  slender,  brownish  insect,  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
long.  It  may  become  a  general  pest,  although  originally  found  in 
flour. 

Control. — Housekeepers  suffering  in  this  connection  are  ad- 
vised to  make  complaint  at  once  to  the  parties  selling  them  infested 
flour.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be  noted  that  if  the  flour  bin 
is  not  cleaned,  but  flour  added  from  time  to  time,  as  the  supply 
gets  low,  a  pantry  or  house  may  be  overrun,  because  of  the  oppor- 
tunity for  the  insect  to  increase  in  the  lower  part  of  the  flour  bin 
from  the  original  supply.  (See  page  349.) 

Buffalo  Gnats  or  Black  Flies. — These  insects  are  short,  with 
a  bulging  thorax  and  broad,  short  wings  (Fig.  318).  They  are 
active  until  sundown,  at  which  time  mosquitoes  take  their  place 
as  annoyers  of  mankind  and  stock.  Only  the  females  suck  blood. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  on  stones  or  projecting  parts  of  submerged 
objects  in  running  water.  The  larvae  live  in  the  swift  current, 
feeding  on  small  aquatic  animals.  They  are  equipped  with  pecu- 


BUFFALO  GNATS  OR  BLACK  FLIES  311 

liar,  fan-shaped  structures  on  the  head  which  create  currents  of 
water  towards  the  mouth.  They  may  securely  anchor  themselves 
by  a  sucking  disk  and  a  tough  silken  thread.  An  upright  position 
is  maintained  in  the  water,  and  locomotion  is  performed  after  the 
manner  of  that  of  the  measuring  worms.  When  full  grown  the 
larvae  pupate  by  making  small,  cradle-like  structures  on  the  sides 
of  stones.  From  these  cradles  the  adults  emerge,  coming  to  the 
surface  like  corks  and  running  ashore  to  complete  their  final 
hardening.  A  visit  to  the  north  woods  hi  June  and  July  is  rendered 
extremely  disagreeable  to  most  of  us  on  account  of  their  activities. 


FIG.  318. — A  species  of  black  fly,  S.  venustrum.     Much  enlarged.     (Lugger.) 

Injury. — Black  flies  at  times  make  life  unbearable  for  both 
man  and  beast,  in  both  the  North  and  the  South,  where  running 
streams  are  numerous.  Man  is  attacked  along  the  edges  of  his 
hair,  on  his  neck,  about  his  eyes,  ears,  and  wrists — anywhere 
where  hair  is  short.  These  insects  readily  draw  blood  and  appear 
to  inject  a  poison,  as  severe  attacks  cause  marked  symptoms  of 
poisoning.  As  intimated  above,  they  are  most  active,  and  their 
attacks  are  most  severe  on  warm,  sunshiny  days.  Figure  318 
illustrates  one  of  the  species,  Simulium  venustwn  Say. 

Control. — Rubbish  should  be  removed  from  streams  where 
practicable.  Repellent  substances  may  be  used  upon  exposed 


312   INSECTS  AFFECTING  MAN  AND  HOUSEHOLD 

surfaces  of  human  beings  and  animals.  Among  these  are  oil  of 
tar  and  pennyroyal,  citronella,  citronella  mixed  with  vaseline, 
and  the  various  "fly  dopes"  which  are  advertised  for  this  purpose. 
Smudges  of  smoke  are  good  protection  for  animals  and  sometimes 
are  used  about  the  camp.  Pyrethrum  powder  burned  upon  pieces 
of  bark  in  the  house  or  in  a  tent  will  kill  or  drive  away  black  flies. 
The  "No-see-um,"  or  "Punkie." — This  tiny  speck  of  a  fly 
(Fig.  319)  (Creptopogon  sp.),  barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and 
capable  of  getting  through  the  finest  netting,  is  frequently  a  great 

tormentor  of  human  beings  who  visit 
the  wilderness  during  the  summer.  It 
is  yellowish,  and  its  transparent  wings 
are  marked  with  cloudy  areas. 

The  ointments  advised  for  buffalo 
gnats  are  partially  effective. 

Mites. — These  minute  animals  (Car- 
poglyphus  passularum  Herring)  are  not 
insects,  but  belong  to  the  class  Arach- 
nida  and  order  Acarina.      Unlike  in- 
sects, they  have  four  pairs  of  legs  in 
the  adult  stage.  Originally  an  European 
species,   this  has  been   introduced   on 
our  west  coast.     It  is  found  in  stored 
fruits,    especially   such    as    come  from 
California,  rendering  them  unfit  for  use ; 
it  is  frequently  found  in  California  figs. 
Fumigation  under  proper  conditions 
FIG.  3i9.— "No-see-um,"  "punkie."  should  do  much  to  destroy  these  pests. 
(Lugger.)        (See  discussion  of  fumigation.) 

Wood  Ticks. — Several  species  of  ticks  other  than  the  two  known 
fever-bearing  forms  are  found  in  the  United  States.  Many  of 
these  attack  man,  and  practically  all  of  them  cause  irritations  and 
sores.  Sometimes  serious  inflammation  is  caused  where  they 
attach  themselves  to  human  beings.  They  are  often  found  attack- 
ing dogs,  rabbits  and  other  animals.  The  female  ticks,  which 
have  strong  hooks  at  the  end  of  the  rostrum  with  which  they 
anchor  themselves  to  the  flesh,  are  the  dangerous  individuals. 
They  become  engorged  with  the  blood  of  the  host  and  finally  drop 
from  a  rabbit  or  dog,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the 
ground. 

Control, — No  absolutely  effective  method  of  control  is  available. 


QUESTIONS  313 

During  that  part  of  the  summer  season  when  wood  ticks  are  abun- 
dant, careful  scrutiny  of  body  and  clothing  should  be  made  on 
the  part  of  those  exposed  to  their  attacks.  The  pests  should  be 
picked  off  and  destroyed  before  they  have  an  opportunity  to 
cause  a  painful  sore  by  becoming  firmly  attached.  The  author 
knows,  from  personal  experience,  that  ticks  brought  into  the  house 
on  clothing  may  fasten  themselves  to  the  skin  days  after  this 
occurs.  Since  these  ticks  are  found  on  the  top  of  low  vegetation 
growing  in  or  near  wooded  areas,  awaiting  their  victims,  the 
avoidance  of  such  situations  during  the  tick  season  would  be  a 
safeguard. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  description  and  habits  of  the  two  clothes  moths,  comparing  their 

work. 

2.  What  are  the  methods  of  preventing  the  attack  of  clothes  moths  and  of 

eradicating  them  in  furs  or  woollens? 

3.  Discuss  the  value  of  moth  balls  and  napthalene  in  controlling  insects. 

4.  What  are  the  habits  of  and  control  measures  for  cockroaches? 

5.  Discuss  the  carpet  beetle  or  " buffalo  bug, "giving  remedial  measures? 

6.  Give  life  history  and  methods  of  control  of  bed-bugs. 

7.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  little  red  ant  occurring  in  houses?    What  are 

the  best  remedial  measures? 

8.  What  injuries  are  caused  by  the  "silver  fish"?    How  is  it  controlled? 

9.  Discuss  at  length  habits  and  life  history  of  the  house-fly. 

10.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  to  lessen  the  house-fly  evil — (a)  by  the 

householder,  (6)  by  towns  or  cities? 

11.  Give  life  history  and  habits  of  mosquitoes  in  general.    Are  any  of  them  a 

menace  to  health? 

12.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  to  lessen  the  number  of  mosquitoes? 

13.  Under  what  conditions  may  we  expect  to  find  a  house  overrun  with  fleas? 

14.  Enumerate  all  precautions  necessary  to  prevent  infestation  of  a  dwelling 

by  fleas,  and  state  how  animals  may  be  relieved  of  this  pest. 

15.  Discuss  life  history  and  habits  of  black  flies  or  buffalo  gnats. 

16.  How  do  wood  ticks  affect  man  and  animals,  and  what  can  you  say  as  to 

methods  of  control? 

17.  What  household  pests  have  you  found  troublesome  in  your  own  experience? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

INSECTS  AND  INSECT-LIKE  ANIMALS  ATTACKING 
STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

LIVESTOCK,  including  poultry,  forms  one  of  our  most  valuable 
assets.  Milk  supply  and  beef  production  fall  off  frequently, 
through  insect  attack,  and  the  egg  supply  and  health  of  chickens 
are  largely  dependent  upon  the  absence  of  vermin  in  the  hen- 
house and  nests.  This  chapter  deals  with  the  pests  directly 
concerned  with  these  conditions. 

The  Horse  Bot-Fly. — One  of  the  most  interesting  and  most 
injurious  of  insects  is  the  horse  bot-fly  (Gastrophilus  equi  Fab.). 


FIG    320. — Bot-fly  of  horse,  much  enlarged.     (Lugger.) 

The  female  lays  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  eggs,  all  of 
which  may  be  placed,  under  favorable  circumstances,  upon  one 
horse.  These  eggs  are  fastened  to  the  hairs,  generally  of  the  fore- 
legs, shoulders,  or  chest.  A  horse  instinctively  fears  this  pest 
and  will  often  be  seen  when  in  the  pasture,  to  start  and  strike  with 
the  fore-feet,  although  the  cause  of  its  nervousness  is  not  visible. 
The  adult  fly  is  brownish,  more  or  less  hairy,  and  looks  a  little 
like  a  small  honey  bee  (Fig.  320).  It  is  most  skilful  in  depositing 
its  yellowish  eggs,  or  "nits"  as  we  sometimes  call  them,  on  the 
animal's  hairs  (Fig.  321). 
314 


MOUSE  BOT-FLY 


315 


Eggs  and  Larvae. — The  moisture  and  friction  which  these 
receive  from  the  animal  licking  its  hair  cause  them  to  hatch,  and 
further  licking,  occasioned  possibly  by  the  irritation  of  the  skin 
caused  by  the  presence  of  the  tiny  larvae,  carries  the  maggot  into 
the  mouth.  It  finds  its  way  into  the  horse's  stomach,  and  there 
completes  its  larval  life,  attached  to  the  lining  of  the  stomach. 
It  is  sometimes  so  abundant  as  to  completely  cover  a  portion  of 
the  stomach  (Fig.  322).  Normally  the  egg  stage  lasts  about 
fifteen  days.  Evidently,  if  the  eggs  go  four  weeks  without  being 
licked,  a  very  small  percentage,  if  any,  of  them  will  hatch.  The  bots 
live  in  the  stomach  or  intestines  eight  or  ten 
months,  moulting  twice  during  that  period. 

Injury.  —  Naturally,  when  numerous, 
they  sap  the  vitality  of  the  horse.  They  also 
cause  great  irritation  by  attaching  them- 
selves to  the  lining  of  the  small  intestines 
and  the  rectum.  City  horses,  whose  drop- 
pings fall  mostly  on  pavements  and  in  other 
places  unfavorable  for  the  development  of 
the  bots,  are  not  so  subject  to  the  pest  as 
are  the  animals  in  the  country. 

The  Next  Season. — In  the  spring  these 
bots  loosen  their  hold  and  pass  out  with  the 
droppings ;  they  work  their  way  into  the  soil 
an  inch  or  two,  or  into  some  protected  local- 
ity; each  "bot"  or  larva  changes  to  a  pupa, 
lying  within  a  pupal  case,  from  which  the 
adult  fly  emerges  after  about  thirty  days. 

Control. — A  horse  will  not  be  attacked  so  long  as  he  is  in  the 
stable.  Ordinarily  a  stable  horse  can  be  kept  free  of  what  few 
"nits  ".it  attracts,  while  out  of  doors,  by  proper  currying,  and  no 
careful  man  in  charge  of  horses  will  allow  the  eggs  to  remain  on 
the  animal  or  animals  in  his  charge.  Horses  hi  pasture  and  not 
being  groomed  frequently  become  covered  with  eggs  during  sum- 
mer and  early  fall,  and  such  animals  should  be  carefully  examined 
every  two  weeks  and  all  "nits"  removed.  The  eggs  can  be  cut 
off  or  killed  by  a  trace  of  kerosene — just  brush  them  over  with  a 
feather  wet  in  the  oil  and  do  not  use  enough  kerosene  to  injure 
the  hide.  Or  they  may  be  killed  by  the  use  of  a  wash  consisting  of 
one  part  of  carbolic  acid  in  thirty  parts  of  water.  We  can  resort 
to  clipping  when  eggs  are  deposited  in  numbers.  The  eggs  may 


I 


FIG.  321.— Eggs  of  horse 
bot-fly,  attached  to  hairs. 
Greatly  enlarged. 


316     INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 


Fio.  322. — Bots  in  stomach  of  horse.     Natural  size.     (After  Heller.) 


ANOTHER  IMPORTANT  BOT-FLY  317 

be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  a  sharp  razor  without  cutting  much  of 
the  hair.  A  thoughtful  teamster  in  a  field  or  elsewhere,  if  he 
observes  a  bot-fly  disturbing  his  horses,  will  try  to  kill  the  fly 
with  his  hat  or  in  some  other  way,  and  thus  prevent  further  trouble. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  in  the  past 
suggested  the  advisability  of  treating  piles  of  dung  by  some  process 
which  will  destroy  the  bot.  It  is  very  evident  that  so  long  as  the 
horse  is  kept  from  licking  his  coat  where  eggs  or  larvae  are,  no 
harm  can  befall  him  other  than  the  irritation  caused  by  the  attacks 
of  the  fly. 

Internal  Treatments. — A  horse  in  poor  condition,  in  whose 
droppings  the  owner  occasionally  notices  bots,  is  probably  badly 
enough  affected  to  call  for  treatment,  and  a  veterinarian  should 
be  consulted.  Sometimes  turpentine  is  used  internally,  but  it  is 
a  dangerous  remedy  in  the  hands  of  the  uninitiated.  Four-ounce 
doses  of  turpentine,  four  hours  apart  until  three  or  four  doses  have 
been  given,  the  last  dose  followed  by  one  ounce  of  powdered  aloes, 
have  been  recommended.  Carbon  bisulfid  has  also  been  used  in 
Italy  with  marked  success.  Six  gelatine  capsules,  each  containing 
fifteen  grams  of  this  liquid,  were  given  to  two  horses  at  intervals 
of  two  hours.  During  the  four  following  days  the  first  horse 
passed  497  bots;  the  second,  in  five  days,  passed  571  bots.  Another 
party  gave  one  horse  thirty-two  grams  in  five  hours,  and  the 
animal  later  passed  203  bots.  Horses  so  treated  should  be  care- 
fully watched,  and  if  any  bad  effects  result  the  treatment  should 
be  stopped.  We  are  not  aware  that  this  treatment  has  been  used 
in  this  country.  The  old  and  absurd  " molasses  and  milk"  remedy 
has  long  since  been  found  to  be  absolutely  of  no  use. 

Red-tailed  Bot-Fly. — This  is  another  bot-fly  (G.  hcemorroi- 
dalis  Linn.),  occuring  in  some  localities,  which  attacks  horses. 
Its  habits  are  much  like  those  of  the  species  just  described,  and 
the  same  remedial  measures  will  apply.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
female  deposits  her  eggs  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  horse  instead 
of  on  its  shoulders  and  fore-legs  (Fig.  323). 

Another  Important  Bot-Fly. — With  habits  somewhat  like  the 
two  preceding,  this  species  (G.  nasalis  Linn.)  was  formerly  believed 
to  prefer  the  region  near  the  nose  or  "chin"  for  egg-laying,  but 
it  is  now  said  to  oviposit  on  hairs.  Horses  seriously  affected  with 
this  bot  should  receive  the  attention  of  a  good  veterinarian. 

Control. — The  means  of  prevention  are  practically  the  same  as 
in  the  first-described  species,  G.  equi.  Touching  the  eggs  every 


318     INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

few  days,  when  a  horse  has  been  exposed,  with  pure  kerosene 
might  prove  efficacious,  but  a  mere  combing  or  use  of  a  brush 
is  not  sufficient  with  this  bot,  or  with  any  other  laying  eggs  on 
the  hairs.  Repulsive  ointments  on  the  lips  or  nose  would  be  of 
service  where  the  animals  are  running  in  pasture. 

Ox  Bot-Flies,  Warble  Flies. — The  genus  Hypoderma  includes 
species  of  bot-flies  which  make  tumors  on  cattle.  Recent  investiga- 
tors question  the  accuracy  of  the  following  hitherto  accepted  method 
of  entering  the  animal.  Like  other  bot-flies,  they  lay  eggs  on  the 
hairs  in  spring  and  summer,  and  these  eggs  are  e'ther  hatched  by  the 


FIG.   323. — Red-tailed  bot-fly.     Greatly  enlarged.     (Lugger.) 

moist  friction  of  the  tongue  of  the  animal — the  tiny  maggots  finding 
their  way  into  the  mouth  by  subsequent  licking — or  the  eggs  them- 
selves are  carried  into  the  mouth  and  hatch  there.  In  either 
event,  the  young  maggots  migrate  down  the  gullet,  through  its 
walls  and  other  tissues  of  the  victim  until  they  reach  the  skin, 
where  they  appear,  forming  the  swellings  known  as  "warbles." 
These  become  more  noticeable  in  midwinter  and  later.  Here 
they  mature,  hi  tumors  caused  by  their  own  activities.  Their 
anterior  end,  with  its  mouth,  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  tumor,  where 
the  mucus  upon  which  they  feed  gathers.  The  posterior  end, 
through  which  most  of  the  breathing  takes  place,  is  directed  up- 
ward. This  is  near  the  small  opening  in  the  hide,  which  is  appar- 


TWO  SPECIES  CONFUSED  319 

ently  made  for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  discharge  of  excremen- 
titious  matter,  and  the  final  escape  of  the  bot  (Fig.  324). 

Injury. — The  bot  or  larval  stage  lasts  for  nine  or  ten  months, 
and  the  vital  activities  of  the  bot,  if  abundant,  cause  the  victim 
to  lose  flesh,  to  fall  off  in  milk — if  it  is  a  milch  cow — and  impart 
to  the  flesh  in  the  vicinity  of  its  work  a  slimy,  greenish  appearance. 
This  abnormal  flesh  is  called  "licked  beef"  by  butchers. 

When  mature,  the  bots  force  their  way  through  the  hide  and, 
dropping  to  the  ground,  bore  an  inch  or  so  into  the  soil,  turn  into 
pupse,  and  after  about  four  weeks  in  the  pupal  stage  emerge  as 
perfect  flies.  Until  1890  it  was  supposed  that  the  eggs  were  laid 
on  the  back  of  the  animal,  and  that  the  maggots  penetrated  the 
skin  at  that  place. 

Two  Species  Confused. — Hypoderma  bovis  De  Geer  is  the 
most  commonly  described  ox-warble  fly,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 


FIQ.   324. — Vertical  section   of  hide  and  subjacent  tissue  showing   ox   warble  in   position. 
Diagramatic.     (Courtesy  of  Country  Gentleman.) 

this  species  is  found  in  the  United  States.  Probably  the  injury 
to  stock  that  suggests  this  insect  should  be  ascribed  to  the  striped 
warble  fly,  or  heel  fly  (Hypoderma  lineata  Villers) .  This  is  a  hairy 
fly  (Fig.  325)  which  looks  a  little  like  a  dark-colored  bee.  There 
are  yellowish-white  hairs  on  the  thorax,  while  above,  the  abdo- 
men is  banded  with  black  and  whitish  color.  Four  lines  on  the 
thorax  give  it  its  name,  the  striped  warble  fly.  The  name  "heel 
fly"  comes,  according  to  the  statement  of  cattle  men  in  the 
Southwest,  from  the  fact  that  it  lays  many  eggs  on  the  heels  of 
the  cattle,  above  the  hoofs.  The  eggs  are  attached  to  the  hairs 
by  a  peculiar  clasping  apparatus  at  one  end. 

Control.— These  tumors  may  be  easily  detected,  when  present, 
by  running  the  hand  over  the  back  of  an  animal.  The  bot  may  be 
squeezed  out  of  the  tumors  on  the  back  of  milch  cows  and  killed. 
To  do  this,  enlarge  the  opening  a  trifle,  if  necessary,  with  a  clean 
knife.  This  squeezing  out  of  the  bots  causes  some  pain,  as  is 


320     INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

evidenced  by  the  cattle  wincing  during  the  operation  (Fig.  326). 
Or  introduce  a  drop  of  kerosene  or  a  little  mercurial  ointment 
through  the  opening  of  each  tumor.  After  the  bots  have  been 
removed  or  killed  within  the  tumors,  the  latter  should  be  dressed 
a  few  times  with  vaseline  in  which  carbolic  acid  has  been  mixed, 
or  with  some  other  ointment  or  sterilizing  material.  A  mixture 
of  one  quart  of  powdered  sulfur  and  four  parts  lard,  rubbed  into 
and  over  openings  of  tumors,  will  kill  the  bots. 

Repellent  Materials. — If  the  eggs  on  the  hairs  are  moistened 
with  kerosene  when  first  observed,  they  will  not  hatch.    It  is  not 


FIG.    325. — Striped  warble-fly  or  heel  fly.     Natural  size  shown  by  hair  line  on  right. 

(Lugger.) 

safe  to  use  too  much  kerosene.  Repellent  materials,  which  are 
persistently  sticky,  such  as  fish  oil,  or  a  compound  of  pine  tar 
and  kerosene  and  fish  oil,  may  be  frequently  smeared  over  the 
back,  sides,  belly,  fore-legs,  and  roots  of  the  tail  of  stock  running 
in  pasture.  This  will  in  a  great  measure  reduce  the  evil.  This  is 
not  always  practicable.  Of  course,  the  flies  will  find  some  animal 
poorly  protected,  and  this  animal  will  suffer  all  the  more  on  account 
of  the  protected  condition  of  its  mates.  Fish-oil  emulsion,  first 
used  against  the  horn  fly,  might  well  be  used  on  stock  running  in 
pasture,  both  for  the  ox-warble  and  the  horse  bot-fly.  It  is  inex- 

i 


SCREW  WORM  321 

pensive  and  easily  applied,  and  those  who  have  worked  with  it 
claim  that  its  effects  will  last  for  four  or  five  days.  If  the  animals 
are  enclosed  and  a  knapsack  sprayer  used,  a  large  number  of 
cattle  may  be  treated  in  an  hour.  The  emulsion  is  made  as  fol- 
lows :  Dissolve  one-half  pound  of  common  hard  soap  in  one  gallon 
of  boiling  water;  add  gradually  two  gallons  of  fish  oil;  churn  the 
liquid  through  a  force  pump  for  several  minutes;  when  wanted 
for  use,  dilute  by  adding  fifteen  or  twenty  parts  of  water  to  one 
part  of  stock  solution.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  recommended  tar,  or  the  following  mixture:  Sulfur, 
four  ounces;  spirits  of  tar,  one  gill;  whale  oil,  one  quart;  one  appli- 
cation each  week. 

Naturally,  housed  animals  are  not  so  subject  to  attack,  and  if 
animals  hi  pasture  can 
resort  to  a  shed,  to  deep 
shade,  or  to  water,  they 
are  much  less  troubled 
than  those  not  so  pro- 
tected. Those  in  charge 
of  milch  cows  or  other 
cattle  kept  in  barns  should 
be  on  the  lookout  at  the 
proper  time  for  bots 

among     them     Or     eggS     On     FIG.   326. — Method  of  squeezing  out  "grub"  or  hot. 
.  TTT,  (Courtesy  of  Country  Gentleman.) 

the    hairs.      When    seen, 

prompt  measures  should  be  used.  Cooperation  is  absolutely 
essential,  in  this  as  in  other  farm  practices  against  insects,  to 
insure  the  best  results. 

The  Screw  Worm. — This  is  one  of  the  most  injurious  of  the 
flesh  flies  (Chrysomyia  macellaria  Fab.).  It  is  bright  metallic 
green,  with  prominent,  dull-red  eyes,  and  is  a  little  larger  than  the 
house-fly.  The  back  is  marked  with  three  distinct  black  stripes 
running  from  head  to  abdomen  (Fig.  327).  The  larva  or  maggot 
is  similar  to  other  maggots,  but  has  a  ring  of  bristles  between 
each  pair  of  segments,  from  which  it  obtains  the  name  of  screw 
worm.  These  bristles  act  as  legs  hi  locomotion.  The  mature 
maggot  is  three-fourths  to  one  inch  long,  and  the  mouth  parts 
are  represented  by  two  pointed  black  hooks. 

Life  History. — The  adult  female  lays  an  enormous  number  of  * 

eggs  on  or  near  dead  animals  or  in  open  sores  of  living  animals. 
These  eggs  hatch  in  from  one  to  two  days,  and  the  maggot  attains 
21 


322     INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

full  size  in  about  a  week.  Pupation  takes  place  in  the  ground. 
The  reddish-brown  pupa  is  one-third  of  an  inch  long.  After  about 
a  week  in  the  pupal  stage,  the  insect  emerges  as  an  adult. 

Injury. — Since  these  insects  fly  from  dead  matter  to  parts  of 
living  animals,  including  man,  dogs,  sheep,  cattle,  horses,  etc., 
it  is  evident  that  a  wound  can  be  very  seriously  poisoned.  In 
consequence,  great  pain  and  even  death  may  be  caused  by  the 
attacks  of  this  fly.  Human  beings  with  severe  colds  are  sometimes 
attacked,  flies  depositing  their  eggs  in  the  nostrils.  The  author 
has  seen  maggots  of  this  species  removed  from  a  baby's  hand  upon 
which  had  been  placed  sweet  oil.  The  maggots  force  their  way 


FIG.   327. — The  screw-worm  fly,  enlarged.     (Lugger.) 

into  the  flesh,  feeding  voraciously,  and  thus  enlarging  the  sores. 
The  animal  attacked  is  soon  killed  if  the  pest  is  not  removed. 
Human  beings  die  if,  when  infested  in  nose  or  ear,  immediate 
treatment  is  not  procured.  This  pest  is  much  worse  in  the  South 
than  elsewhere,  but  occurs  in  the  North  in  considerable  numbers. 
Control. — The  eggs  are  said  to  be  destroyed  by  sunlight. 
Prompt  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  health  of  all  farm  animals, 
and  all  sores  should  be  quickly  treated.  A  physician  in  the  case 
of  human  beings  or  a  veterinarian  in  the  case  of  stock  should  be 
consulted  immediately  after  infestation.  Filth  of  any  sort  should 
not  be  allowed  to  accumulate.  Wounds  should  be  promptly 
cleansed  and  anointed  with  an  antiseptic,  such  as  extremely  dilute 


HORN  FLY  323 

carbolic  acid.  A  subsequent  coating  of  pine  tar  may  aid  in  repelling 
the  flies.  Creolin  may  be  more  effective  than  carbolic  acid.  Appli- 
cations of  this  sort  should  be  made  by  some  one  more  or  less 
conversant  with  the  use  of  these  agents. 

The  Flesh  Fly.— The  adults  of  the  well-known  blow-flies  (Sar- 
cophaga  sp.)  are  always  on  hand  to  blow  meat  in  the  summer 
time  when  left  exposed.  The  female  gives  birth  to  a  large  number 
of  maggots,  which  are  hatched  within  the  mother.  When  first 
born  they  are  mere  specks,  but  in  a  few  days  they  grow  to  be 
one-half  of  an  inch  in  length.  These  maggots  are  deposited  on 
any  exposed  meat  or  in  damp,  filthy  places.  They  will  also  deposit 
maggots  in  the  interior  of  the  ears  of  stock,  and  particularly  on 
wounds  and  sores,  which  they  enlarge  and  keep  from  healing. 
Transformation  from  maggot  to  pupa  takes  place  in  the  ground — 
the  winged  adult  emerging  in  a  few  days,  ready  to  start  another 
generation. 

Value  and  Injury. — To  a  certain  extent  these  flies  are  bene- 
ficial, since  they  act  as  scavengers,  but  they  are  a  great  nuisance 
to  man  and  animals,  because  they  run  over  them  in  search  of  food. 
Like  other  flies,  they  undoubtedly  carry  filth  and  disease  germs. 
As  intimated  above,  they  attack  fresh  meat  which  has  been  left 
exposed,  as  well  as  carrion,  and  are  particularly  annoying  through 
their  persistence. 

Control. — All  wet  and  filthy  hair  on  animals  should  be  cut, 
especially  that  around  wounds  and  sores,  and  such  wounds  or 
sores  should  be  rendered  antiseptic.  This  can  be  done  by  applying 
carbolic  acid,  one  part  to  fifty  of  water,  or  one  ounce  of  oil  of  tar 
to  twenty  ounces  of  sweet  oil.  Maggots  found  in  the  wounds  of 
infested  stock  should  be  removed. 

The  Horn  Fly. — This  fly  (Lyperosia  irritans  Linn.)  is  a  little 
smaller  than  the  house-fly,  but  more  slender.  It  is  about  the  same 
color.  It  is  frequently  observed  clustered  at  the  base  of  the  horns 
of  cattle  (Fig.  328).  It  seeks  that  location  because  it  is  there  safe 
from  disturbance. 

Injury. — It  attacks  the  back,  sides,  and  flanks  of  cattle,  suck- 
ing the  blood  and  causing  a  falling  off  in  milk  supply  on  account 
of  the  annoyance  to  the  animal.  These  flies  are  small,  but  the 
blood  taken  by  a  few  thousand  is  considerable.  Dark  cattle  appear 
to  be  more  attractive  to  the  horn  fly  than  light-colored  animals. 

Life  History. — Eggs  are  deposited  in  the  field  in  freshly 
dropped  dung.  They  hatch  quickly,  then  enter  the  ground,  and 


324     INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

there  pass  the  pupal  stage.  There  are  several  generations  during 
the  year. 

Control. — Tar  and  fish  oil  in  equal  parts  may  be  applied  as  a 
repellent  upon  the  flanks  of  cows;  or  a  mixture  of  half  a  cup  of 
kerosene  in  a  quart  of  rancid  lard  may  be  used  in  the  same  way. 
The  latter  repellent  is  ordinarily  effective  for  two  or  three  days. 
When  numbers  of  cows  are  to  be  treated,  spraying  with  fish  oil 
should  be  resorted  to.  As  is  well  known,  cows  kept  in  the  stable 
during  the  day  and  turned  into  pasture  at  night  are  exempt  from 
attacks  of  all  insects  that  fly  during  the  daytime. 

The  Stable  Fly  (Stomoxys  calcitrans  Linn.). — This  fly  also 
closely  resembles  the  house-fly.  Very  abundant  about  stables  in 
the  late  summer  and  early  autumn,  it  sometimes  enters  dwelling 
houses  in  muggy  weather.  Sharp,  piercing  mouth-parts  distin- 
guish it  from  the  house-fly.  Its 
habits  are  very  much  the  same 
as  those  of  the  latter. 

Life  History. — The  eggs  are 
laid  in  moist,  decaying  sub- 
stances and  hatch  in  from  one 
to  three  days.  The  pupal  stage 
lasts  from  six  to  twenty  days, 
depending  upon  temperature. 
Unlike  the  house-fly,  it  does 
not,  by  choice,  breed  in  manure, 

FIG.  328.-Horn  flies  on  horn  of  cow.  but  prefers  wet  gtraw  stacks  Or 

manure  containing  plenty  of  straw.  It  is  found  to  be  more  abun- 
dant in  old  oat  straw  than  in  wheat  straw,  and  breeds  in  numbers 
in  debris  left  from  threshing.  The  complete  cycle,  from  egg  to 
adult,  occupies  about  nineteen  days. 

Injury. — Like  other  flies  which  frequent  filth,  this  one  is  poten- 
tially a  distributor  of  disease.  It  is  practically  cosmopolitan,  but 
becomes  of  great  importance  in  the  grain  belt.  It  can  easily  bite 
through  clothes,  and  frequently  bites  ankles  when  low  shoes  are 
worn.  It  is  very  evident  that,  since  it  flies  from  one  animal  to 
another,  it  may  be  the  cause  of  spreading  anthrax  hi  both  animals 
and  man;  also  glanders;  and  possibly  swamp  fever  in  horses.  It 
also  acts  as  an  intermediate  host  for  a  round  worm  of  cattle,  as 
well  as  for  many  diseases  of  animals,  in  other  continents.  In 
Texas  the  loss  from  the  attacks  of  this  fly  is  estimated  at  over 
twenty-five  thousand  dollars. 


BLOOD-SUCKING  OSCINIS  325 

Control. — As  recommended  for  the  house-fly,  stable  manure, 
particularly  that  in  which  there  is  much  straw,  should  be  removed 
as  often  as  possible,  at  least  once  a  week.  Wet  straw  should  not 
be  allowed  to  accumulate.  Working  animals  should  be  protected 
by  nets  or  other  covers.  Stables  darkened,  but  allowing  ventila- 
tion, afford  protection.  Thorough  screening  of  all  windows  and 
doors  is  advisable. 

The  Blood-sucking  Oscinis. — This  is  a  very  small,  polished 
black  fly  (Oscinis  pallipes  Loew.)  (Fig.  329)  with  yellow  face  and 
legs.  It  is  hardly  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  from  tip  to 
tip  of  its  spread  wings. 

Little  is  known  of  the  life  history.    It  is  very  probable  that  the 


FIQ.  329. — The  blood-sucking  Oscinis.     Greatly  enlarged.     (Lugger.) 

larvae  and  the  life  history  resemble  those  of  other  members  of  its 
family,  Oscinidce.  The  others  are  strictly  vegetable  feeders  in 
both  larva  and  adult  stages.  (See,  in  this  connection,  Oscinis 
soror,  under  wheat  pests.) 

Injury. — During  the  summer  this  fly  is  exceedingly  abundant 
in  some  localities,  attacking  horses,  cattle,  dogs,  etc.  Its  move- 
ments are  rapid;  it  is  most  persistent  hi  its  attack  and  difficult 
to  drive  away.  It  seeks  places  on  animals  where  protection  is 
afforded  by  hairs,  and  its  attacks  soon  cause  a  great  flow  of  blood. 
When  engorged  with  food,  it  drops  to  the  ground  and  is  unable  to 
fly;  then  other  flies,  attracted  by  the  flowing  blood,  add  to  the 
animal's  previous  injury.  This  soon  results  in  large  sores,  and 
animals  become  frantic  as  the  result  of  repeated  attacks. 


326     INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

The  Sheep  Bot-Fly,  Sheep  Gad-Fly,  "  Grub  in  the  Read," 
"  False  Gid." — This  bot-fly  ((Estrus  ovis  Linn.)  is  dull  yellow  in 
color,  looks  a  little  like  a  large  house-fly,  and  has  no  mouth.  It 
places  its  living  young  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep,  the  egg  having  been 
hatched  in  the  body  of  the  parent.  The  attempts  of  the  female 
fly  to  reach  this  point  drive  the  poor  animals  frantic.  They  lie 
down,  bury  their  noses  in  the  dust,  throw  dust  in  the  air,  huddle 
together,  etc.  This  fly,  like  most  allied  pests,  is  fond  of  hot  sun- 
shine, and  flies  on  warm  and  sunny  days  between  May  and  October 
(Fig.  330).  The  young  larva,  once  in  the  nose,  works  its  way 
upward,  occasionally  gaining  lodgement  in  the  frontal  sinuses — 
cavities  between  plates  of  bone  over  the  eyes.  Ten  months  are 


FIG.  330. — Sheep  gad-fly:  a,  adult;  b,  larva;  on  right,  puparium.     (After  Brauer.) 

required  for  the  maggots  to  mature,  at  which  time  they  crawl 
back  to  near  the  anterior  opening  of  the  nose  and  are  sneezed  out. 
They  remain  hi  the  pupal  stage,  one  or  two  inches  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  from  four  to  six  weeks. 

Injury. — The  adult  flies  pester  the  animals  as  above  described. 
The  upward  migration  of  the  larva  in  an  animal's  head  and  its 
activity  cause  serious  symptoms  in  the  affected  animal.  These 
occasionally  result  disastrously.  This,  however,  according  to 
Neumann,  occurs  only  when  the  bots  are  quite  numerous  in  the 
animal,  and  are  well  advanced  in  their  development  early  in  the 
season.  Animals  seriously  affected  lose  their  appetite,  become 
emaciated,  discharge  thick  mucous  matter  from  the  nose,  some- 
times throw  their  heads  back,  or,  hanging  their  heads,  lift  their 


REMEDIES  AND  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION       327 

feet  high  in  the  air  when  walking,  grate  their  teeth,  and  froth  at 
the  mouth.  This  is  followed  by  convulsions  and,  finally,  death 
within  six  or  eight  days  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  symptoms. 

The  above  symptoms  are  sometimes  wrongly  ascribed  to  the 
attacks  of  worms  which  cause  the  sickness  known  as  "gid,"  or 
"turn  sick."  The  presence  of  the  bot-fly,  however,  does  not  cause 
the  animal  to  turn  in  a  circle,  as  in  the  case  of  "turn  sick."  The 
presence  of  the  bot,  too,  nearly  always  causes  nasal  discharges 
and  snorting,  which  symptoms  are  absent  in  a  case  of  "gid." 

Remedies  and  Means  of  Prevention. — In  the  case  of  common 
stock  destined  for  the  market,  a  very  general  and  serious  attack 
can  perhaps  best  be  met  by  sending  the  sheep  to  the  slaughter- 
house. On  the  other  hand,  there  are  a  few  remedies  or  methods 
of  preventing  an  attack  or  of  relieving  the  sufferers.  If  the  bots 
have  penetrated  into  the  frontal  sinuses,  it  is  apparent  that  it 
must  be  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  reach  them.  Certainly 
one  should  never  use  a  wire,  nor  any  compound  which  would  injure 
or  cause  great  suffering  to  the  patient.  When  the  bots  are  hi  the 
nostrils  only,  they  may  be  removed  sometimes  by  using  a  feather 
dipped  in  turpentine  or  very  weak  carbolic  acid  (one  part  of  acid 
to  thirty  parts  of  water),  or  creosote  or  zenoleum.  An  injection 
of  salt  water  or  diluted  carbolic  acid  into  the  nostrils  with  a  syringe 
is  claimed  to  be  of  use.  Fine,  air-slaked  lime  is  sometimes  used, 
the  animals  being  forced  to  breathe  it,  that  sneezing  may  be 
induced.  Dr.  Lugger  states  in  one  of  his  reports  that  he  met  with 
success  by  blowing  pyrethrum  up  the  nostrils.  Anything  which 
will  induce  sneezing  is  good:  tobacco  snuff  shaken  into  the  nos- 
trils, the  burning  of  horns,  leather,  or  feathers,  in  a  closed  shed 
where  the  sheep  are  confined,  etc.  It  is  claimed  also  that  equal 
parts  of  turpentine  and  sweet  oil  poured  into  the  nostrils  carefully, 
the  head  being  held  up,  is  excellent,  care  being  taken  that  the  sheep 
may  not  be  choked.  But,  as  intimated  above,  all  these  remedies 
would  avail  little  or  nothing  if  the  bots  were  safely  housed  in  the 
bones  of  the  forehead. 

Keeping  Away  the  Flies. — Some  sheep-raisers  in  infested  local- 
ities maintain,  from  May  to  October,  in  pasture  or  yard,  logs, 
along  which,  at  intervals  of  five  or  six  inches,  two-inch  holes  are 
bored.  These  holes  are  kept  about  half  filled  with  salt,  and  the 
edges  or  the  mouths  of  the  holes  are  frequently  smeared  with  fresh 
tar.  The  sheep,  in  endeavoring  to  reach  the  salt,  involuntarily 
smear  their  noses  with  the  tar,  and  this  tends  to  keep  off  the  flies. 


328     INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

As  an  auxiliary  to  this — for  they  will  not  all  get  a  liberal  allowance 
of  tar  on  their  noses — one  may  rub  into  the  nostrils  and  about  the 
noses  the  following  compound:  Pine  tar,  two  parts;  fish  oil  or 
cottonseed. oil,  one  part;  powdered  sulfur,  one  part.  Some  farmers 
plow  a  few  furrows  across  the  pasture,  into  which  the  sheep  may 
stick  their  noses  when  attacked.  Some  breeders  keep  deep  dust 
in  a  portion  of  the  sheep  yard,  into  which  the  animals  instinctively 
thrust  their  noses  when  attacked  by  the  fly.  This,  however, 
affords  only  temporary  protection,  since  the  fly  returns  to  the 
attack  as  soon  as  the  animals  leave  the  furrow  or  dust  pile. 

All  modern  books  on  sheep-raising  undoubtedly  contain  the 
latest  and  best  remedies  for  all  parasites  of  sheep.  One  or  more 
good  books  of  this  kind  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  sheep-raiser. 


FIG.  331. — Green-head  fly.     Much  enlarged.   (Lugger.) 

Tabanids. — These  are  variously  known  as  horse-flies,  breeze- 
flies,  and  gad-flies — these  two  latter  terms  also  being  applied  to 
the  (Estridce.  Some,  which  are  found  more  particularly  in  the 
timber  and  affect  deer  and  moose,  are  called  deer-flies;  some  are 
referred  to  as  "green  heads"  (Fig.  331). 

To  fit  these  flies  for  their  parasitic  habit  .of  preying  upon 
quadrupeds,  nature  has  equipped  them  with  powers  for  extremely 
rapid  flight,  and  they  can  easily  overtake  the  fastest  deer  or  horse. 
It  has  even  been  said  of  them  that  some  can  fly  faster  than  an 
express  tram  at  full  speed. 

Both  males  and  females  are  found  on  flowers,  the  males  con- 
fining themselves  to  a  diet  of  nectar,  and  never  biting;  the  females, 
only  resort  to  the  sweets  offered  by  flowers  when  blood  cannot 
be  obtained.  These  flies  not  only  infest  quadrupeds,  but  as  some  of 


MOSQUITOES  329 

us  know  to  our  cost,  many  of  them  do  not  scruple  to  attack  man. 
Warm  weather  and  bright  sunshine  appear  to  be  the  conditions 
most  conducive  to  their  activity.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  more 
numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  low  or  marshy  places.  The  adults 
appear  to  be  especially  fond  of  water,  and  their  brownish  or  black 
eggs,  in  the  case  of  those  whose  larval  life  is  passed  on  land,  are 
deposited  either  on  stems  or  leaves.  In  the  case  of  aquatic  forms, 
eggs  are  laid  on  reeds  in  the  water.  Pine  woods,  too,  seem  to 
attract  them.  Some  forms  of  larvae  are  said  to  live  in  rotten  wood. 
The  larvae  are  always  carnivorous,  feeding  on  snails  or  insects  in 
their  early  stages,  thus  offering  something  of  a  compensation  for 
the  mischief  caused  by  them  as  adults. 

Injury. — Not  only  are  the  attacks  of  tabanids  exasperating  to 
both  man  and  beast,  but  it  is  quite  possible,  even  probable,  that 
they  may  transmit  disease  by  biting  a  well  animal  after  having 
fed  upon  the  blood  of  some  infested  creature.  They  are  probably 
active  agents  in  distributing  the  disease  known  as  " anthrax." 
The  writer  was  appealed  to  for  help  at  one  time  by  a  mail  carrier 
in  the  northern  part  of  Minnesota  who  had  to  discontinue  carrying 
mail  on  account  of  the  attacks  of  Tabanidce  upon  his  horses. 

The  larva  of  one  species  of  Chrysops  is  said  to  eat  plant  lice. 

Control. — Nets  or  light  covers  are,  of  course,  a  protection, 
particularly  the  latter.  Where  nets  or  light  coverings  cannot  be 
used,  anointing  the  horses  with  repulsive  ointments,  such  as  fish 
oil  or  fish  oil  and  tar,  will  be  of  benefit.  Care  should  be  taken 
never  to  use  machine  oil  for  this  purpose,  as  the  results  of  its  use 
are  disastrous  to  the  hair. 

The  eggs  of  Tabanus  atratus  Forst.  are  parasitized  by  a  tiny, 
four-winged  fly  known  as  Phanurus  tabanivorus  Ashm. 

Some  members  of  the  genus  Chrysops  appear  to  direct  their 
attacks  to  the  region  about  the  eyes  and  ears  of  stock.  Horses' 
ears  may  be  protected  by  nets,  or  the  ears  and  skin  about  the 
eyes  may  be  smeared  with  the  following  solution:  Pine  tar,  one 
gallon;  kerosene  or  fish  oil  or  crude  carbolic  acid,  one  quart; 
powdered  sulfur,  two  pounds.  This  mixture  also  applied  to 
wounds,  as  those  made  by  barbed  wire,  will  keep  off  flies  which 
might  otherwise  lay  their  eggs  in  the  open  wounds. 

Mosquitoes. — Members  of  this  family,  Culitidoe,  when  occur- 
ring in  great  numbers,  cause  annoyance  to  stock,  and  frequently 
excessive  loss  of  blood.  E.  P.  Niles,  of  Virginia,  states  that  he 
has  seen  occasions  in  northern  Iowa  when  it  was  necessary  to 


330    INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

drive  cows  into  a  smudge  before  they  could  be  milked.  The 
writer  has  had  the  sleeves  of  his  coat  so  covered  with  mosquitoes 
in  the  Red  River  Valley,  Minnesota,  that  they  presented  a  gray 
color,  the  original  color  of  the  cloth  being  hidden.  Swampy 
pasture  land  will  always  be  a  breeding  place  for  this  pest. 

Control. — Stock  can  be  protected,  in  a  measure,  by  the  follow- 
ing mixture,  frequently  applied:  Melt  two  quarts  of  lard  and  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  coal  tar,  then  add  one  quart  of  kerosene,  one 
teaspoonful  of  turpentine,  one  teaspoonful  of  oil  of  pennyroyal. 
Apply  with  a  rag,  sponge,  or  brush.  This  is  sufficient,  of  course, 
to  make  application  upon  a  few  animals  only.  A  number  of  the 
strong-smelling  compounds  recommended  in  this  publication  for 
use  against  flies  on  stock  will  temporarily  protect  the  animals  to 
which  they  are  applied.  Man  finds  relief  by  applying  oil  of  citron- 
ella,  for  sale  at  many  drug  stores,  anointing  the  face,  back  of  neck, 
and  hands.  One  should  avoid  getting  this  too  close  to  the  eyes. 
(See  page  307,  Insects  Affecting  Man  and  the  Household.) 

The  Scab  Mite  of  Sheep. — The  scab,  caused  by  the  presence 
and  activity  of  the  above-named  mite  (Psoroptes  communis  Furst, 
var.  ovis),  is  one  of  the  most  dreaded  diseases  among  sheep-growers. 
It  is  rightly  said  to  be  more  injurious  than  any  other  disease 
caused  by  external  parasites.  In  many  countries  it  is  so  important 
that  stringent  laws  have  been  enacted  to  check  it. 

Life  History. — The  scab  mite  (Fig.  332)  is  not  a  true  insect, 
but  belongs  to  the  class  Arachnida,  where  we  find  the  ticks  and 
mites,  spiders  and  scorpions.  In  the  adult  condition  it  has  eight 
legs,  in  the  young  stage  six.  Its  length  of  life  is  from  three  to 
six  weeks.  The  tiny  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  skin  and  under  the 
scabs  on  the  skin,  when  they  are  formed.  They  are  said  to  hatch 
in  from  four  to  seven  days.  Every  female  lays  an  enormous 
number  of  eggs.  Moisture  is  conducive  to  their  development. 

Injury. — The  first  noticeable  symptom  of  scab  in  sheep  is  a 
scratching,  rubbing,  and  biting  by  the  infested  animal,  due  to  the 
intense  itching,  particularly  when  the  creature  has  become  warm 
by  being  driven  or  kept  in  a  warm  stable.  This  intolerable  itching 
causes  the  sheep  to  rub  itself,  and  the  wool,  loosed  by  the  scabby 
condition  of  the  skin,  is  rubbed  off  in  patches  (Fig.  333).  The 
coat  of  a  scabby  sheep  looks  rough,  and  the  wool  can  be  easily 
pulled  out  in  places.  As  the  scab  spreads,  the  mites  are  found  at 
the  edges  and  the  older  points  of  attacks  take  on  a  characteristic 
incrustated  appearance.  The  incrustated  appearance  is  due  to 


DIPPING 


331 


the  exudation  and  drying  of  a  lymph-like  liquid,  which  gathers 
in  minute  sacs  or  pustules  in  the  skin,  as  the  result  of  the  activities 
of  the  mites. 

Dipping  after  shearing,  and  keeping  the  animals  for  at  least 
four  weeks  away  from  their  old  quarters,  will  tend  to  prevent 
reinfestation.  Two  dippings,  with  an  interval  of  from  six  to  ten 
days  between  treatments,  are  necessary;  in  severe  cases  even  three 
dippings  are  advised.  Various  dips  are  in  use.  Those  containing 
arsenic  are  not  recommended,  on  account  of  their  poisonous  nature. 
The  dips  containing  tobacco,  and  the  lime-sulfur-dip,  are  excellent. 


FIG.   332. — Scab-mite  of  sheep,  male  on  left,  female    on    right.     Much  enlarged;  o,  head; 
b,  b,  legs;  c,  c,  suckers.     (After  Curtice.) 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has,  in  the  past, 
recommended  the  following  dip  for  scab:  20  pounds  of  lime, 
25  pounds  of  powdered  sulfur,  100  gallons  of  water.  Slake  the 
lime,  and  add  the  rest  of  the  water  and  the  sulfur;  boil  twenty 
minutes  and  strain.  This  is  said  by  some  to  be  too  severe  both 
on  wool  and  skin.  The  coal-tar  dips,  used  in  accordance  with  the 
directions  given  by  the  manufacturers,  are  advised.  Each  sheep 
should  be  held  in  this  solution  until  the  scabs  are  thoroughly 
soaked,  possibly  two  minutes  for  each  sheep,  immersing  the  head 
at  least  once.  Give  a  second  dipping  ten  days  later  and  possibly 
a  third  after  an  equal  interval.  The  temperature  of  the  dip  should 
be  103  degrees  F.  Dip  suspected  sheep,  which  have  been  purchased, 


332    INSECTS  ATTACKING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

twice  before  adding  them  to  your  flock.  This  will  destroy  all 
external  parasites.  This  dip  could  also  be  used,  in  about  this 
strength,  on  other  animals  suffering  with  any  external  parasite. 

Other  Control  Measures. — Infested  stables  or  pens  should  be 
sprayed  with  the  same  mixture,  or  with  kerosene  emulsion,  and 
the  sheep  kept  away  from  them  for  four  weeks.  Whitewashing 
the  interior  of  such  buildings  or  pens  after  spraying  is  naturally 
a  good  measure.  The  dipping  pen  is  an  important  furnishing  of 


FIG.  333.— Sheep  badly  infested  with  scab. 

every  sheep  farm.  Scabby  sheep  should  not  be  driven  along  a 
public  highway,  for  evident  reasons.  Keep  sheep  out  of  pastures 
previously  occupied  by  infested  sheep. 

The  Sheep  Tick. — This  species  (Melophagus  ovinus  Linn.), 
formerly  called  Hippobosca  ovinus  Linn.,  is  found  the  world  over, 
wherever  sheep  are  kept.  The  sheep  tick  (Fig.  334)  is  about  one- 
sixth  of  an  inch  long,  a  wingless  and  degenerate  fly,  and  is  apt  to 
be  common  where  sheep  are  kept  in  crowded  quarters.  It  is  only 
when  sheep  are  crowded  together  that  this  parasite  crawls  from 
one  animal  to  another.  The  adult  female  brings  forth  young  in 


TREATMENT  FOR  SHEEP  TICK 


333 


the  larval  stage,  and  the  species  is  most  abundant  in  spring  and 
summer.  Lambs  suffer  particularly  just  after  the  older  sheep  have 
been  sheared,  for  in  the  hair  of  the  unsheared  lambs  the  ticks  find 
a  safe  retreat  and  succulent  food  close  at  hand.  It  is  roughly 
estimated  that  a  tick  will  take  from  a  lamb  four  drops  of  blood 
per  day,  or  possibly  about  one-fifteenth  of  a  fluidounce.  As  many 
as  one  hundred  ticks  can  be  found  sometimes  upon  one  lamb.  If 
we,  however,  halve  that  number,  averaging  it  at  fifty  ticks,  a 
conservative  estimate, 
we  get  the  astonishing 
result  of  two  hundred 
drops  of  blood  being 
sucked  from  the  lambs 
daily. 

Treatment.  —  Scrub- 
bing or  combing  or 
washing  with  water  will 
do  but  little  good.  Dip- 
ping with  some  insecti- 
cide is  the  only  sure 
remedy.  Dips  are 
made  from  coal-tar  or 
creosote  products  as 
follows:  One  gallon  of 
dip  to  one  hundred 
gallons  of  water;  this 
to  be  used  once  in  the 
spring  immediately 

shearing      and 

.       ,,        ,.    n   i      . 

in  the  fall  before 
the  sheep  go  into  winter  quarters.  They  should  be  kept  in  the 
liquid  at  least  one  minute.  If  they  are  not  so  dipped,  the  ticks, 
as  mentioned  above,  will  migrate  as  soon  as  possible  to  the 
unshorn  lambs. 

Sheep  added  to  the  flock  from  the  outside  should  be  dipped 
before  they  join  the  home  flock,  to  prevent  the  introduction  of 
ticks  and  other  parasites.  Dipped  sheep  should  not  be  returned 
at  once  to  the  same  pen  or  enclosure  occupied  before  shearing  or 
dipping,  but  should  be  allowed  to  remain  for  a  while  hi  a  different 
enclosure  to  prevent  reinfestation.  A  second  dipping  should  be 
given  about  twelve  days  after  the  first.  However,  a  careful 


0-   ^34.  —  Sheep  tick,  enlarged,  and  enlarged  foot. 
(Lugger.) 


334    INSECTS  AFFECTING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 


examination  of  a  few  sheep  will  determine  whether  there  are  enough 
ticks  on  them  to  call  for  this. 

Wool,  if  infested  when  clipped,  should  be  stored  at  a  distance 
from  the  sheep  in  order  to  be  sure  that  no  ticks  escape  from  it, 
to  return  to  the  animals. 

Dipping  for  ticks  will  at  the  same  time  kill  lice  and  many  other 
external  parasites. 

A  thorough  spraying  of  the  pens  or  other  enclosures,  with 
zenoleum  of  the  strength  given  above,  or  with  kerosene  emulsion, 
will  kill  all  wandering  ticks  or  mange  mites  and  most  other  vermin, 
and  this  is  a  desirable  thing  to  do. 


FIG.  335. — Hog  louse  and  enlarged  foot. 
Hair  line  shows  actual  size.    (Lugger.) 


FIG.  336. — Short-nosed  cattle  louse. 
Tip  of  abdomen  from  below.  (Lugger.) 


Lice. — Zenoleum  has  been  found  to  be  one  of  the  best  insecti- 
cides to  use  for  lice  on  hogs,  horses,  cattle,  etc.  On  hogs  (Fig. 
335),  use  one  part  of  zenoleum  to  thirty  parts  of  water,  applying 
either  by  spraying  or  with  a  stiff  brush  or  sponge.  Some  hog- 
raisers  construct  a  dipping  pen  in  connection  with  the  hog-house 
and  there  the  hogs  are  dipped.  The  dipping  should  be  repeated 
in  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  the  first  treatment. 

For  lice  on  horses  and  cattle  (Fig.  336),  zenoleum  is  used  at  the 
strength  of  twelve  tablespoonfuls  to  every  gallon  of  water,  applied 
with  a  stiff  brush  or  spray  pump  or  sponge.  Every  part  of  the  body 
should  be  washed  thoroughly  and  the  application  repeated  in  eight 


THE  BLOW-FLY  OR  MEAT-FLY  335 

or  ten  days.  Crude  oil  warmed  to  about  blood  heat  and  rubbed 
along  the  back,  between  the  legs,  and  around  the  tail,  neck  and 
head,  is  also  advised.  Stables  should  be  whitewashed.  Animals 
may  be  clipped  and  then  washed  with  sheep  dip. 

Black  Flies,  or  Buffalo  Gnats. — These  minute  flies,  belonging 
to  the  family  Simulidce,  are  always  more  or  less  troublesome  to 
stock  in  certain  localities,  and  when  found  in  great  numbers  cause 
much  loss.  In  1884,  in  Franklin  Parish,  Louisiana,  they  killed 
three  hundred  head  of  stock  in  a  week.  Horses,  mules,  cattle, 
sheep,  hogs,  and  poultry  are  sufferers.  Only  the  females  bite, 
but  many  of  us  can  bear  witness  that  each  female  can  do  enough 
mischief  for  two.  They  are  attracted  to  stock  from  long  distances. 

Control. — Animals  which  have  not  shed  their  winter  coats 
suffer  more  than,  those  whose  skin  is  smooth,  since  the  flies  can 
apparently  get  a  better  hold  where  long  hair  is  present.  Horses 
clipped  in  the  early  spring,  therefore,  would  not  suffer  as  much  as 
the  undipped  animals.  Horses  and  cattle  in  darkened  stables 
are  not  attacked.  Where  a  preventive  is  called  for,  use  fish  oil, 
or  fish  oil  with  a  little  kerosene  added.  Mix  one  part  of  kerosene 
to  three  parts  of  fish  oil.  Apply  twice  a  day  or  oftener.  This 
would  be  of  benefit  to  a  working  team.  (See  page  310  for  further 
discussion,  and  see  figure  318.) 

The  Green-bottle  Fly. — Flies  of  this  species  (Lucilia  cornidna 
Fab.)  lay  eggs  on  dung  in  pastures.  Occasionally  they  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  dung  which  sometimes  sticks  to  the  rumps  of  lambs  when 
loosening  food  has  been  eaten,  if  the  tails  have  not  been  docked. 

The  maggots  from  these  eggs  work  in  the  dung  and  attack 
the  tender  skin  and  flesh,  causing  festering  sores,  and  frequently 
the  death  of  a  lamb. 

Anything  which  will  keep  those  parts  clean  is  the  manifest 
treatment.  Practice  early  docking.  Care  as  regards  diet  is  espe- 
cially necessary. 

The  Blow-Fly  or  Meat-Fly  is  a  large,  blackish  fly  with  bluish 
abdomen.  It  belongs  to  the  species  Calliphora  vomitoria  Linn. 
When  cabbage  or  cauliflower  and  corned  beef  are  being  cooked 
these  flies  in  large  numbers  come  about  the  kitchen  door,  or  inside 
if  the  door  is  not  screened.  They  lay  their  eggs,  which  quickly 
hatch,  upon  meat  and  vegetables,  and  are  at  times  a  great  nui- 
sance. Packard  says  that  in  the  Civil  War  wounded  soldiers 
lying  on  the  field  were  tormented  by  these  flies  endeavoring  to 
lay  eggs  in  their  wounds. 


336     INSECTS  AFFECTING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 


Treatment  of  Wounds. — Wounds  on  stock  should  be  quickly 
dressed  with  weak  carbolic  acid.  Use  one  part  of  carbolic  acid  to 
thirty  parts  of  water.  Then  coat  them  with  tar  (U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture).  If  eggs  are  already  in  the  wounds,  they 
should  be  removed  carefully,  the  wounds  washed  with  the  above 
carbolic  acid  solution,  and  dressed  with  tar. 

Mange. — This  disease  is  caused  upon  various  animals,  horse, 
cow,  sheep,  wolf,  hog,  dog,  and  other  animals,  by  different  varieties 
of  minute  mites,  not  insects.  A  common  species  is  known  as 
Scaroptes  scabiei  Latr.  This  mite  (Fig.  337)  occurs  on  man  to  a 
certain  extent.  It  is  commonly  called  the  "itch  mite,"  and  its 
burrowing  in  the  skin  causes  intense  irritation  and  loss  of  hair 


FIG.  337.  —Itch-mite  of  man,  male,  greatly 
enlarged.     (Lugger.) 


FIG.  338. — Mange-mites  of  the  horse, 
male  and  female,  much  enlarged.  (After 
Meguin.) 


on  the  affected  parts.  Figure  338  is  a  mite  which  causes  mange 
on  the  horse.  Figure  339  is  a  similar  pest  working  on  the  dog. 
Figure  340  is  a  mite  causing  foot  mange  on  the  horse. 

Control. — It  can  be  controlled  by  the  various  dips  and  washes 
used  against  scab,  ticks,  and  lice.  Anointing  the  affected  parts 
with  lard  and  sulfur  has  given  good  results.  Hot  water  and  zeno- 
leum  may  be  mixed  at  the  rate  of  fifty  parts  of  water  to  one  part 
of  zenoleum.  Allow  it  to  cool  before  using.  The  cost  of  spraying 
cattle  with  this  is  about  three  or  four  cents  per  head.  A  mixture 
of  zenoleum  and  lard  is  also  recommended.  Adding  powdered 
sulfur  to  the  zenoleum  and  lard  will  increase  the  efficacy  of  the 
mixture. 

Chicken  Scab. — This  is  often  called  scaly  legs  in  fowls.  It 
is  caused  by  one  or  more  species  of  mites  which  attack  the  combs 


THE  POULTRY  MITE 


337 


and  legs  of  our  common  fowls.  These  parts  become  scaly  on  the 
surface  (Fig.  341).  The  scales  can  be  rubbed  off,  disclosing  an 
unnatural  brownish  color  when  on  the  comb,  entirely  unlike  the 
healthful  red  color  we  would  expect  to  see.  Figure  342  shows 
fairly  well  the  appearance  of  the  legs  of  poultry  suffering  from  the 
attacks  of  this  parasite.  The  legs  look  whitish,  and  the  fowls, 
irritated  no  doubt  by  the  itching,  pick  at  them.  One  infested 
fowl  obviously  can  easily  spread  the  trouble  to  other  fowls  which 
occupy  the  same  yard  or  roost. 

Control. — Naturally  the  various  dips  which  are  used  to  kill 
other  mites  and  lice  would  be  efficacious  here.  One  mixture  rec- 
ommended is  four  tablespoonfuls  of  zenoleum  in  one  gallon  of 


FIG.  339. — Itch-mile     of     the    dog,     male. 
Much  enlarged.     (After  Neuman.) 


FIG.  340. — Mite  causing  foot-mange  in 
horse.    Greatly  enlarged.     (After  Neuman.) 


water.  Hold  the  legs  in  this  two  or  three  minutes.  Do  not  scrape 
the  scabs  when  dry.  Afterward  rub  the  legs  with  some  sweet  oil 
or  lard  a  few  times.  A  five  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  is  also 
claimed  to  be  effective  in  such  cases. 

The  Poultry  Mite. — This  grayish  mite,  which  becomes  red 
after  a  meal  of  blood,  is  familiar  to  almost  all  who  keep  poultry. 
This  mite  and  the  biting  lice  found  on  fowls  are  often  grouped 
under  the  head  of  "lice."  Mites  are  not  true  insects,  as  they 
have  eight  legs  in  the  adult  stage.  The  mites  thrive  best  in  damp, 
uncared-for  poultry  houses. 

Control. — Cleanliness,  sunlight,  and  fresh  air  are  among  the 
best  preventive  measures.  Roosts  should  be  removable,  since 
22 


338    INSECTS  AFFECTING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

the  mites  congregate  under  the  ends  of  the  roosts,  and  in  cracks 
and  crevices  near  the  roosts.  Feeding  is  done  entirely  at  night, 
and  one  infested  bird  may  be  the  cause  of  the  pest  spreading 
through  the  entire  poultry  yard.  The  inside  of  the  house  should 
be  regularly  sprayed  with  crude  petroleum,  kerosene  emulsion, 
pure  kerosene,  or  some  tobacco  extract.  Since  the  eggs  laid  in 
crevices  and  cracks  may  not  be  reached  by  the  spray,  a  second 
spraying  should  be  given  a  week  after  the  first,  in  order  to  catch 


Fio.  341. — Chicken  scab  on  head  of  fowl.     (Lugger.) 

the  young  lice  that  hatch  from  the  same.  Hundreds  of  these 
mites  (Fig.  343),  congregated  on  the  under  side  of  roosts  may  be 
burned  in  the  daytime  by  passing  the  flame  from  a  lighted  paper 
rapidly  from  one  end  of  the  roost  to  the  other.  Or  brush  the  roosts 
with  a  liberal  application  of  crude  oil.  Occasional  whitewashing 
of  the  interior  of  the  house  is  another  help. 

Feather  Lice  of  Fowls.— There  are  a  number  of  "  biting-lice  "- 
not  true  lice,  which  belong  to  an  order  of  insects  known  as  Mallo- 
phaga.     Different   forms   of   these   occur  not   only   on   chickens, 


THE  CATTLE  AND  SPOTTED  FEVER  TICK       339 


turkeys,  ducks,  geese,  pigeons,  and  other  feathered  animals,  but 
also  on  the  dog,  cat,  sheep,  cow,  horse,  etc.  Among  them  are  the 
four  species:  Menopon  pallidum,  Goniocotes  hologaster  by  Nitzsch; 
and  G.  bumettii  Packard;  and  Lipeurus  variabilis.  Some  of  these 


FIG.  342. — Chicken  scab  on  foot  of  fowl.     (Lugger.) 

(Fig.  344)  are  found  on  our  domestic  poultry  and  are  very  much 
in  evidence  when  one  is  "dry-picking"  a  chicken  or  turkey. 

These  insects  are  flat,  yellowish  or  pale  colored,  and  somewhat 
broad  in  proportion  to  their  length.     They  are  approximately 

about  one-tenth  or  one-twelfth 
of  an  inch  long,  and  are  easily 
seen  with  the  naked  eye. 


FIG.  343. — Chicken  mite.     (After  Lugger.)          FIG.   344. — Feather  louse  or  biting  louse  of 

chicken.     (After  Packard.) 

Control. — Provide  a  generous  dust  bath  for  fowls  at  all  times. 
Keep  the  hen-house  clean;  whitewash  liberally.  Spray  with  crude 
petroleum  in  feathers  of  adult  fowls.  Do  not  build  the  hen-house 
against  the  barn,  lest  these  pests  annoy  other  stock. 

The  Cattle  Tick  and  Spotted  Fever  Tick.— Not  only  are  a 
number  of  insects  guilty  of  transmitting  disease  either  directly 


340     INSECTS  AFFECTING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

or  indirectly,  but  among  the  Arachnids  at  least  two  ticks,  in  the 
light  of  our  present  knowledge,  are  now  recognized  as  dangerous. 
These  both  inflict  loss  upon  cattle  raisers. 

"Texas  fever"  or  "Tick  fever"  affects  southern  cattle  infested 
with  the  species  of  tick  Margaropus  annulatus  Say.  Its  ravages 
are  not  confined  to  Texas.  The  disease  is  infectious,  caused  by  the 
transmission  into  the  blood  of  the  animal  of  a  parasitic  protozoan 
existing  in  the  body  of  the  tick.  Symptoms  of  the  presence  of  the 
disease  are  high  fever,  a  reddish  urine,  loss  of  flesh,  and,  in  a  large 
number  of  cases,  the  death  of  infected  cattle.  This  disease  may 
also  occur  in  northern  cattle,  brought  south  and  turned  out  upon 
the  ranges;  or  northern  cattle  may  become  infected  from  ticks 
brought  north  on  southern  cattle.  Specimens  of  this  tick  (Fig. 


FIG.  345.— North  American  fever  tick;  newly  moulted  nymph  on  left,  adult  female  just 
beginning  engorgement,  and  fully  engorged  female.      (After  Cotton,  Tenn.  Bull.  113.) 

345)  have  been  found  on  dogs  frequenting  the  tick-infected  coun- 
try. The  pest  has  so  seriously  threatened  the  cattle  industry 
that  the  Federal  Government  has  established  a  quarantine  line, 
imposing  severe  restrictions  on  the  passage  of  cattle  out  of  the 
quarantine  zone.  In  states  south  of  this  line  the  fever  tick  has 
cost  agricultural  interests  every  year  something  like  one  hundred 
million  dollars  (Tenn.  Bull.  81). 

The  Rocky  Mountain  spotted  fever  tick  (Dermacentor  venustis 
Banks),  transmitter  of  the  disease  known  as  Rocky  Mountain 
spotted  fever,  has  been  most  destructive  in  the  Bitter  Root  Valley, 
Montana,  but  also  occurs  in  Nevada,  Idaho,  Utah,  Wyoming, 
and  possibly  other  states.  When  human  beings  are  bitten  by  this 
tick  eighty  per  cent  of  the  cases  result  fatally. 

Life  History. — Immature  ticks  of  this  latter  species  frequently 
feed  on  smaller  mammals,  such  as  ground  squirrels;  the  mature 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  SPOTTED  FEVER  TICK      341 

forms  on  cattle.  The  life  history  of  each,  as  well  as  that  of  many 
others  of  this  group,  is,  generally  speaking,  the  same,  differing  in 
minor  details.  One  difference  of  detail  is  that  the  fever  tick  moults 
on  its  original  host,  while  other  native  species,  the  dog  tick  for 


Engorged  Tick 


Engorged  Tick 
Laying  Eggs. 


2nd  Moult 


Eggs  Hatch  and 
Seed  Ticks  Crawl 
up  on  Grass 


L 


Seed  Ticks  get 
on.  Host  Animal 


Seed  Ticks  Starve  to 
Death  on  Grass 

_  _a 

Fio.   346.— Life  cycle  of  North  American  fever  tick.     (After  Cotton,  Tenn.  Bull.  81.) 


example,  drop  to  the  ground  to  moult  and  then  seek  other  hosts. 
The  engorged  and  fertilized  adult  female  lays  on  the  ground  about 
1500  or  2000  or  more  eggs.  It  may  take  from  three  weeks  to  seven 
months  or  more  for  these  eggs  to  hatch.  The  young  tick  called 
"seed  tick"  crawls  to  the  top  of  weeds  or  grasses,  to  await  there  a 


342    INSECTS  AFFECTING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 


host  to  which  it  may  attach  itself.  After  this  is  accomplished 
it  undergoes  several  moults,  and  finally  drops  to  the  ground, 
the  fertilized  females  engorged  with  blood.  These  lay  enormous 


Fia.  347. — Rocky  Mountain  spotted  fever  tick.  Much  enlarged.   (After  Cooley,  Mont.  Bull .) 

numbers  of  eggs,  as  above  stated.  The  disease  may  be  trans- 
mitted through  the  eggs  to  the  next  generation  of  ticks.  The  life 
cycle  of  the  North  American  fever  tick  is  illustrated  in  figure  346. 

Control  of  Texas 
Fever  Tick.  — If  cattle 
are  kept  out  of  the  pas- 
tures they  naturally  es- 
cape attack,  and  most  of 
the  young  ticks  will 
starve  for  lack  of  food. 
A  four-  or  five-year  pas- 


FIG.   348.— The  bee  moth. 


FIG.   349. — Larva  of  bee  moth. 


ture  rotation  is  also  advised  in  the  following  order:  Corn,  spring 
oats,  hay  meadow,  pasture  (Tenn.  Bull.  No.  81).  It  is  claimed  that 
this  will  rid  a  farm  of  ticks.  Application  of  oil  to  newly  infested 
stock  is  also  practiced,  the  material  being  applied  with  spray  pump, 


THE  BEE  MOTH 


343 


brush,  or  mop.  Emulsion  used  in  the  process  is  made  by  dissolv- 
ing one-half  pound  of  soap  in  one-half  gallon  of  water  by  boiling. 
After  taking  from  the  fire,  add  two  gallons  of  Texas  black  oil  aad 
churn  until  a  creamy  emulsion  is  formed.  When  wanted  for  use, 
five  gallons  of  water  (preferably  soft  water)  is  added  to  the  above 
amount  of  stock  solution. 

Control  of  Rocky  Mountain  Spotted  Fever  Tick  (Fig.  347).— 
As  with  the  previous  pest,  immunity  is  obtained  by  keeping 
domestic  animals  free  from  ticks.  This  desirable  end  is  obtained 


Fia.   350. — Frame  of  comb,  badly  injured  by  bee  moth.     (Original.) 

in  much  the  same  way  as  recommended  above,  especially  by  spray- 
ing or  dipping  animals  at  the  first  appearance  of  the  ticks.  The 
destruction  of  ground  squirrels  and  other  rodents  which  may  and 
do  harbor  young  ticks  in  a  tick-infested  locality  is  of  questionable 
value,  but  it  has  been  practiced  by  some  cattle  men. 

The  Bee  Moth  (Galleria  mellonella  Linn.). — This  grayish 
moth  (Fig.  348),  whose  larvae  (Fig.  349)  work  in  comb  and  honey, 
is  rarely  injurious  to  a  strong  colony  of  bees,  which  is,  if  properly 
housed,  perfectly  able  to  protect  itself.  It  is  only  when  the  number 
of  occupants  in  a  hive  has  dwindled  and  the  colony  has  thus 


344    INSECTS  AFFECTING  STOCK  AND  POULTRY 

become  unable  to  defend  itself,  or  when  an  old  or  badly  constructed 
hive  is  used,  that  the  moths  are  enabled  to  creep  into  a  hive  and 
lay  their  eggs. 

When  once  established  the  comb  is  soon  ruined  by  the  activities 
of  the  caterpillars  (Fig.  350),  which  later  on  spin  tough  silken 
cocoons  throughout  the  hive.  In  severe  attacks  the  dwindling 
colony  may  desert  the  hive,  leaving  behind  a  foul  mass  of  partially 
eaten  comb  interlaced  with  webbing,  defiled  honey,  and  hundreds 
of  the  destructive  parasites  in  different  stages.  Methods  of  pre- 
venting this  injury  may  be  inferred  from  the  above  statements. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  and  give  life  history,  of  horse  bot-fly.     State  remedies  and  means 

of  preventing  its  attack. 

2.  Do  the  same  with  the  ox  bot-fly  or  warble  fly.     State  latest  views. 

3.  Are  there  any  insects  mentioned  in  this  chapter  which  are  directly  injurious 

to  man? 

4.  Give  habits  and  life  history  of  the  flesh-fly. 

5.  What  effects  have  horn-flies  on  cattle?    Describe  their  habits. 

6.  Give  habits  and  life  history  of  sheep  bot-fly  and  remedial  measures. 

7.  Discuss  the  family  Tabanidce. 

8.  What  causes  the  scab  of  sheep?    Discuss  at  length. 

9.  Give  life  history  and  remedies  for  the  sheep  tick. 

10.  What  remedial  measures  are  suggested  for  lice  on  stock? 

11.  What  causes  mange? 

12.  Enumerate  the  pests  of  poultry.    Discuss  treatment  of  fowls  and  poultry 

houses  to  lessen  their  attacks. 

13.  Give  life  history  of  the  two  cattle  ticks  in  North  America,  and  remedial 

measures. 

14.  Discuss  the  bee  moth. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS  AND  MILL 
FUMIGATION 

INSECTS  infesting  stored  grains  and  their  products  are  often 
found  in  mills,  elevators,  grocery  and  feed  stores,  and  in  homes. 
The  control  measures  for  many  of  these  are  somewhat  similar. 
Such  treatment  is  given  at  some  length  in  the  last  half  of  the 
chapter. 

Mediterranean  Flour  Moth. — This  grayish,  slender  moth 
(Ephestia  kuehniella  Zell.)  is  about  three-fifths  of  an  inch  long. 
The  female  has  the  characteristic  habit,  upon  emerging  from  the 
pupal  stage,  of  remaining  for  hours  with  the  tip  of  abdomen  and 
head  raised  above  the  level  of  the  body.  Approximately  200 
eggs  are  laid  by  each  female  after  mating.  They  are  placed  any- 
where, in  cracks,  directly  in  the  flour,  in  spouts,  purifiers,  or  other 
machinery,  or  in  sacks  containing  flour  or  meal.  They  hatch  in 
from  nine  to  ten  days,  and  the  larval  life  averages  forty  days. 
When  full  grown  the  larva  spins  a  cocoon  about  one-half  inch 
long  and  transforms  to  a  pupa  within.  Normally  there  are  prob- 
ably two  broods,  though  there  may  be  more  in  warm  mills. 
The  female  moth  may  also  lay  eggs  in  stored  products. 

The  larva  is  from  white  to  pink  in  color,  with  a  reddish-brown 
head.  A  few  small  hairs  are  found  over  the  body.  When  full 
grown  it  is  three-fifths  of  an  inch  long  and  becomes  pink  in  color, 
which  color,  however,  varies,  some  specimens  being  green- 
ish. There  are  three  dark  spots  on  the  side  of  each  segment 
(Fig.  351.) 

Injury. — Wherever  this  larva  crawls,  it  secretes  a  silken  thread 
which  results  in  a  network,  causing  the  formation  of  great  masses 
of  matted  flour  or  meal  through  which  the  thread  runs  (Fig.  352). 
These  masses  may  clog  spouts  or  any  other  machinery  throughout 
the  mill,  rendering  the  products  unfit  for  use  and  sometimes  even 
stopping  the  machinery.  Various  sources  are  responsible  for  the 
existence  of  this  pest  in  flour  mills.  The  more  common  source 
of  infection  is  found  in  returned  sacks.  Second-hand  machinery 
may  be  a  cause. 

Control  Measures. — The  old  adage,  "An  ounce  of  prevention 
is  worth  a  pound  of  cure,"  is  very  applicable  here.  No  sacks, 

345 


346 


MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 


barrels,  or  second-hand  machinery  should  be  allowed  to  enter  the 
mill  without  treatment.  Scrupulous  cleanliness  in  the  building 
is  a  strong  factor.  In  large  mills,  help  should  be  employed  and 
assigned  entirely  to  sweeping  and  cleaning.  A  fumigation  house 
might  well  be  constructed  where  sacks,  barrels,  etc.,  could  be 
fumigated.  For  treatment  in  badly  infested  mills,  both  in  case 
of  this  pest  and  other  mill  insects,  see  page  353. 

Granary  Weevil. — This  is  a  small,  brown  beetle  (Calandra 
granaria  Linn.),  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  long 
snout.  The  grub  or  larva  is  shorter  than  the  adult,  white  in  color; 
robust  in  appearance;  it  is  found  inside  of  the  kernel  of  grain. 


FIG.  351. — Mediterranean  flour  moth;  a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  adult,  enlarged;  d,  head 
and  thoracic  joints  of  larva,  much  enlarged;  e,  abdominal  joint  of  same,  much  enlarged; 
/,  moth  from  side,  resting;  g,  front  wing;  h  and  i,  venation  of  front  and  hind  wings  respect- 
ively, (a,  b,  c,  and  e,  Riley  and  Howard  in  Insect  Life;  d,  f,  g,  h,  and  i,  after  Snellen.) 

The  female  beetle  punctures  a  kernel  with  her  snout  and  lays 
therein  a  single  egg,  the  larva  devouring  the  inside  of  the  kernel 
and  changing  within  to  a  pupa.  The  adult  emerges  six  weeks  from 
the  time  the  egg  is  laid.  There  may  be  three  or  four  broods  of 
this  insect  in  the  North.  In  corn,  several  larvae  may  be  found 
in  one  kernel.  Inasmuch  as  the  beetles  also  eat  the  grain  and 
are  long-lived,  they  may  cause  serious  damage  under  favorable 
conditions.  Figure  353  illustrates  this  species;  and  also  the  rice 
weevil. 

Control  Measures. — Constant  cleanliness  is  advised,  and  the 
prompt  removal  of  dust,  rubbish,  refuse  and  sweepings  of  grain. 
Granaries  should  be  tight  and,  as  far  as  possible,  without  heat, 
preferably  at  some  distance  from  other  buildings. 


THE  ANGOUMOIS  GRAIN  MOTH 


347 


Carbon  bisulfid  is  the  commonly  accepted  agent  for  use  with 
all  granary  insects.  This  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  infested 
grain,  or,  better,  poured  through  a  gas-pipe  with  the  lower  end 
plugged  and  the  sides  at  lower  end  perforated,  the  gas-pipe  being 
pushed  down  into  the  grain  at  different  depths.  The  gas  from 
this  liquid,  being  heavier  than  air,  causes  it  to  descend  through 
the  mass.  The  effectiveness  of  this  treatment  varies  with  the 
temperature.  A  temperature  below  60  degrees  F.  renders  treat- 
ment with  carbon  bisulfid  un- 
desirable. Five  pounds  for 
each  1000  cubic  feet  at  70  de- 
grees or  above  is  advised.  The 
gas  formed  is  explosive;  hence, 
no  exposed  flame  or  spark  of 
any  kind  should  be  brought 
near  it.  The  burning  of  sulfur 
is  hardly  effective.  For  more 
particular  directions  regard- 
ing the  use  of  carbon  bisulfid 
in  elevators  and  mills,  see 
page  61. 

Heating.  —  Where  possible, 
heating  a  mill  to  a  temperature 
of  123  degrees  F.,  and  holding  it 
at  that  temperature  for  several 
hours,  has  been  known  to  kill 
all  insects  in  all  stages  found 
therein.  This  has  been  called 
the  heat  method,  and,  to  be 
successful,  it  calls  for  a  special 
plan  of  arranging  the  hot- 
water  or  steam  pipes. 

The  Rice  Weevil  (Calandra  oryza  Linn.). — This  resembles 
somewhat  the  granary  weevil  and  has  very  similar  habits.  Their 
life  histories  are  nearly  identical,  although  the  rice  weevil  may 
be  found  in  fields  remote  from  the  granary.  This  beetle  feeds  on 
rice,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  hulled  oats,  and  buckwheat,  and  fre- 
quently invades  cracker  boxes,  cases  of  breadstuffs,  bags  of  flour, 
and  barrels  of  meal  (Fig.  353). 

For  measures  of  control,  see  granary  weevil  and  also  page  217. 

The  Angoumois  Grain  Moth. — This  pest  is  named  from  a 


FIG.    352.  —  Flour  matted  together  by  web 
spun  by  larvse  of  flour  moth.     (Lugger.) 


348 


MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 


province  in  France  where  it  has  been  known  since  1736.  The 
moth  (Sitotroga  cerealella  Oliv.)  is  claimed  to  have  been  found 
in  America  since  1728.  It  is  more  injurious  in  the  South  than  in 


FIG.  353. — a,  b,  c,  different  stages  of  the  granary  weevil;  d,  rice  weevil.     The  hair  lines 
indicate  the  size  of  the  insects.     (After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


FIG.  354. — The  angoumois  grain  moth;  a,  eggs;  b,  larva  at  work;  c,  larva,  side-view;  d,  pupa; 
e  and  /,  moth.     (After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

the  North.  It  attacks  not  only  stored  grain,  but  is  also  partial 
to  many  of  the  breakfast  cereals.  The  moth  is  brownish  in  color 
and  resembles  a  clothes  moth  in  both  size  and  appearance  (Fig. 
354).  (See  also  page  208.) 


THE  CONFUSED  FLOUR-BEETLE 


349 


Indian  Meal  Moth. — This  is  a  grayish  moth  (Plodia  inter- 
punctella  Hbn.)  the  caterpillar  of  which  fastens  together  seeds 
and  kernels  of  grain  or  particles  of  other  food  matter  by  silken 
threads.  These  larvae  (Fig.  355)  pass  from  grain  to  grain,  eating 
out  the  germ,  injuring  the  kernels,  both  for  seed  and  food.  An 
average  of  five  weeks  is  required  for  these  insects  to  pass  through 
the  several  stages  from  egg  to  adult.  There  may  be  six  or  more 
generations  in  a  well-heated  mill  or  store-room.  Probably  there 
are  four  or  five  broods  normally.  For  remedial  measures,  see 
flour  moth  and  fumigation  of  mills,  pages  345  and  353. 

Meal  Snout  Moth  (Pyralis  farinalis  Linn.). — This  is  a  light- 
brown  moth  with  reddish  reflections.  There  are  wavy,  whitish 
lines  running  across  the  wings.  The  caterpillar  is  one-half  inch 


FIG.   355. — The    Indian    meal  moth;  a,  FIG.   356. — The    meal    snout    moth;    a, 

larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  adult   male,  enlarged;   d,  adult   moth;   b,    larva;   c,    pupa   in   cocoon, 

head  and  thoracic  joints  of  larva.      (After  twice  natural  size.     (After  Chittenden,  U.  S. 

Riley  and  Howard  in  Insect  Life.)  Bu.  Ent.) 

long  when  full  grown,  and  resembles  in  its  habits  the  Indian  meal 
moth.  It  constructs  long  tubes  of  silk  from  particles  of  meal  or 
other  foods  in  which  it  lives.  There  are  about  four  broods  a  year, 
and  eight  weeks  is  required  to  pass  through  all  stages  (Figs.  356 
and  357). 

Control. — If  food  materials  are  kept  hi  a  clean,  dry  place, 
there  is  but  little  likelihood  of  injury.  Almost  without  exception, 
cases  of  damage  have  occurred  in  cellars,  upon  floors,  in  sheds, 
or  in  places  where  refuse  vegetable  matter  is  accumulated.  For 
remedial  measures,  see  Mediterranean  flour  moth  and  fumigation 
of  mills,  pages  345  and  353. 

The  Confused  Flour-Beetle. — This  quickly-moving  beetle  (Tri- 
bolium  confusum  Duv.)  is  scarcely  one-sixth  of  an  inch  long;  it  is 
flattened,  and  brownish  in  color.  It  is  very  insidious,  in  that  it 


350 


MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 


creeps  into  cracks  filled  with  flour  or  other  inaccessible  places, 
escaping  the  fumes  of  gas  which  are  successfully  used  against 
other  mill  pests.  In  a  high  temperature  it  is  capable  of  under- 
going its  entire  life  cycle  in  a  little  over  a  month.  There  are  prob- 
ably four  broods  a  year  in  well-heated  buildings  (Fig.  358). 

Injury. — It  is  practically  omnivorous.  Besides  grain  and  its 
products,  it  attacks  snuff,  baking  powder,  rice,  ginger,  slippery 
elm,  red  pepper,  beans,  peas,  nuts,  and  seeds  of  various  kinds. 
It  also  becomes  a  serious  museum  pest  by  invading  cabinets  of 
dried  insects.  It  is  a  most  important  flour  pest. 

Control. — Fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  practically 

the  only  effective  remedy,  and 
that  is  not  always  successful,  for 
reasons  given  above.  (See  page 
353  for  fumigation  methods.) 

The  Yellow  Meal  Worm.— 
This  beetle  (Tenebrio  molitor 
Linn.),  nearly  black  in  color,  is 
flattened,  shining,  and  over 
one-half  of  an  inch  long.  It 
resembles  on  a  large  scale  one 
of  the  flour  beetles.  The  larva 
is  cylindrical,  about  one  inch 
long,  with  a  waxy  appearance, 
somewhat  like  a  wire  worm. 
It  is  yellowish  in  color.  The 

FIG.  357. — Silken     tubes     covered     with  .  .,        ,  , 

wheat  made  by  larvae  of  the  meal  snout  moth;    posterior  extremity    terminates 

in  two  small  spines  (Fig.  359). 

The  beetle  deposits  her  eggs  in  meal  or  in  other  substances,  and 
the  grubs,  after  hatching,  eat  the  substance  in  which  they  find 
themselves.  Two  weeks  are  required  for  eggs  to  hatch,  and 
three  months  pass  before  the  larva  or  grub  becomes  full  grown. 
One  brood  a  year  occurs.  These  beetles  are  fair  flyers  and  are 
nocturnal  in  their  habits;  they  are  often  attracted  to  lights. 

The  flour,  meal,  and  other  stored  products  containing  these 
larvae  become  foul  and  unfit  for  use.  For  remedial  measures, 
see  flour  moth  and  fumigation  of  mills,  pages  345  and  353. 

The  Saw-toothed  Grain  Beetle. — This  is  one  of  our  smallest 
grain  beetles  (Silvanus  surindmensis  Linn.),  being  only  one-tenth 
of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  flattened  in  form  and  brown  in  color. 
Six  small  points  on  each  side  of  the  thorax,  like  minute  teeth, 


THE  SAW-TOOTHED  GRAIN  BEETLE 


351 


give  the  name  to  the  species  (Fig.  360).    The  larva  is  a  slender 
white  worm  with  dark  markings.    There  are  from  four  to  six  or 


FIG.  358. — The  confused  flour  beetle;  a,  beetle;  6,  larva;  c,  pupa;  all  enlarged;  d, 
lateral  lobe  of  abdomen  of  pupa;  e,  head  of  beetle  showing  antennae;  /,  same  of  a  closely  allied 
form.  (After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


CL 


FIG.  359. — The  yellow  meal  worm;  a,  larva;  6,  pupa;  c,  female  beetle;  d,  egg  with  surrounding 
case;  e,  antenna;  all  much  enlarged.     (After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 

more  generations  in  a  year;  the  entire  life  cycle  occupies  about 
twenty-four  days  in  midsummer.  The  pupal  stage  is  passed  in 
the  grain,  several  kernels  being  fastened  together  to  form  a  pupal 


352 


MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 


FIG.  360. — The  Baw-toothed  grain  beetle;  a,  adult  beetle;  b,  pupa;  c,  larva;  all  enlarged;  d, 
antenna  of  larva  still  more  enlarged.     (After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


FlO.  361. — The  cadelle;  a,  beetle  with  greatly  enlarged  antenna  above;  b,  pupa;  c,  larva; 
all  much  enlarged.     (After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  BM.  Ent.) 


FUMIGATION  WITH  HYDROCYANIC  ACID  GAS     353 

chamber.  Sometimes  pupation  occurs  in  cracks  or  crevices  in 
the  bin. 

Injury. — This  beetle,  however,  does  not  confine  itself  to  grain 
bins.  It  may  be  found  hi  store-rooms,  granaries,  pantries,  and 
bakeries.  It  seems  to  be  practically  omnivorous,  and  its  small 
size  enables  it  to  penetrate  the  smallest  cracks.  It  is  cosmopolitan 
in  its  distribution.  An  important  fact  to  be  noted  is  that  the  larvae 
may  and  do  perforate  paper  bags  and  cardboard  boxes  which  are 
used  as  containers. 

The  pest  is  easily  killed  by  carbon  bisulfid. 

The  Cadelle  or  Bolting-Cloth  Beetle.— This  interesting  beetle 
(Tenebroides  mauritanicus  Linn.)  is  fully  one-third  of  an  inch 
long,  nearly  black,  with  depressed  body.  The  larva,  when  full 
grown,  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long  and  of  a  dull  whitish  color 
with  a  dark  brown  head.  The  three  thoracic  segments  are  also 
marked  with  brown.  The  last  segment  terminates  in  two  horny 
points  (Fig.  361). 

Injury. — Though  partly  predaceous,  feeding  on  other  mill 
insects,  this  may  be  a  serious  pest  in  a  flour  mill.  Both  the  larva 
and  the  adult  cut  sacks,  and  the  beetle  is  said  to  make  holes  in 
bolting  cloth.  It  may  be  found  in  accumulations  in  the  bottom  of 
elevator  boots  and  flour  conveyors.  It  is  a  common  pest,  frequently 
found  in  bags  of  flour  in  warehouses.  While  in  search  for  food, 
both  larvae  and  adult  devour  any  grain  insects  they  come  across. 

Control. — For  remedial  measures,  see  measures  of  control 
given  for  other  mill  insects. 

FUMIGATION  WITH  HYDROCYANIC  ACID  GAS  FOR  FLOUR  MOTH 
AND    OTHER    MILL    INSECTS 

No  process  is  absolutely  perfect,  and  millers  should  not,  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of  badly  infested  mills,  expect  immunity  after 
the  first  treatment.  The  inexpensiveness  of  the  process,  and  the 
fact  that  the  gas  at  the  strength  used  is  non-explosive,  and  the 
further  fact  that  it  in  no  way  injures  dry  mill  products,  makes  it 
by  far  the  most  effective  remedy  available.  Its  poisonous  qualities, 
of  themselves,  make  it  safe  only  in  the  hands  of  those  acquainted 
with  it,  for  the  knowledge  of  the  possibly  fatal  results  from  care- 
less manipulation  insures  extreme  care  in  its  use.  Under  such 
conditions,  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  safe  agent.  But  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  not  only  that  the  cyanide  of  itself  is  poisonous, 
23 


354  MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 

but  also  that  one  good  "whiff"  of  the  gas  generated  by  the  contact 
of  acid  and  cyanide  might  produce  fatal  results.  Drinking  water 
should  not  be  exposed  to  the  fumes.  Bright  steel,  if  not  covered, 
may  be  slightly  tarnished  by  fumigation. 

Advantages  of  the  Treatment. — Summing  up  the  advantages 
of  the  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  treatment,  it  may  be  said: 

1.  It  is  always  available  and  not  expensive. 

2.  It  is  a  method  of  relief  for  mills  outside  of  the  "freezing" 
zone,  and  freezing  is  by  no  means  an  absolute  cure. 

3.  Its  use  at  the  strength  indicated  is  absolutely  safe  as  regards 
fire  or  explosiveness. 

4.  It  is  absolute  death,  at  strength  used,  to  eggs,  as  well  as 
the  other  stages  in  the  life  of  the  flour  moth. 

J  5.  Its  deadly  qualities  of  themselves  call  for  such  extreme 
care  in  its  use  as  to  insure  safety.  In  other  words,  in  the  hands  of 
those  acquainted  with  its  nature  and  its  use,  it  is  a  safe  agent. 

The  Method  Briefly  Described. — Certain  conditions  are  neces- 
sary to  insure  successful  fumigation.  In  the  first  place,  the 
environment  of  the  building  to  be  treated  is  of  importance.  Mani- 
festly, if  it  is  one  of  a  block  of  buildings,  or  if  there  is  another 
building  owned  by  a  different  party  directly  contiguous,  into 
which  the  gas  might  penetrate  where  it  is  not  desired,  the  permis- 
sion of  the  owners  of  such  property  should  be  obtained,  and  pre- 
cautions taken  to  prevent  accident.  When  a  mill  stands  by  itself 
at  a  distance  from  other  buildings  with  which  it  is  in  no  way 
connected,  no  such  preliminary  precautions  are  necessary. 

Secondly,  the  building  to  be  fumigated  must  be  fairly  tight. 
If  windows  are  very  loose,  paper  should  be  pasted  over  the  cracks. 
Further,  when  possible,  if  the  stories  to  be  fumigated  are  not 
separated  from  each  other,  some  temporary  inclosure  should  be 
made,  thus  insuring  each  story  getting  the  maximum  amount  of  gas. 

Find  accurately  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  each  story  to  be 
treated,  making  no  allowance  for  machinery  or  empty  bins.  Allow 
0.25  of  a  gram  of  cyanide  for  every  cubic  foot  of  space.  After 
multiplying  the  number  of  cubic  feet  by  0.25,  divide  by  28.35  to 
reduce  to  ounces,  and  divide  this  result  by  16;  the  final  quotient 
is  the  number  of  pounds  (avoirdupois)  of  cyanide  needed.  But 
experience  has  taught  the  writer  that  it  is  well  to  use  two  or  three 
jars  more  on  each  floor  than  the  above  specifications  call  for,  to 
insure  thorough  work;  hence  it  is  wise  to  add  nine  or  ten  pounds 
more  for  each  story,  when  making  up  your  order.  The  amount 


THE  METHOD  BRIEFLY  DESCRIBED  355 

of  cyanide  required  having  been  determined,  order  it  from  a 
reliable  dealer,  insisting  upon  98  or  99  per  cent  grade  of  fused 
cyanide  of  potash.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  low  grade. 

A  half  more  sulfuric  acid  than  cyanide  will  be  needed.  For 
instance,  if  a  building  required  500  pounds  of  cyanide,  750  pounds 
avoirdupois  of  sulfuric  acid  are  needed.  This  acid  must  be  the 
best  grade  of  commercial  add  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.83  or 
over.  Anything  below  that  should  be  rejected. 

The  water  should  always  be  placed  in  the  jar  first  (see  page 
62  for  specific  directions)  and  the  acid  added.  Each  jar  will 
contain  six  and  three-quarter  pounds  of  water  (about  three  and 
one-half  quarts)  and  four  and  one-half  pounds  avoirdupois  of  acid. 
If  it  is  impossible  to  secure  cyanide  of  potash,  cyanide  of  sodium 
may  be  employed,  using  one-half  more  acid;  for  example,  three 
pounds  of  cyanide  of  potash  call  for  four  and  one-half  pounds  of 
acid,  while  three  pounds  of  cyanide  of  soda  would  require  six  and 
three-fourths  pounds  of  acid.  Further,  three  pounds  of  cyanide 
of  soda  will  give  off  more  gas  than  an  equal  amount  of  cyanide  of 
potash.  Or,  in  order  to  give  economy  of  material  due  considera- 
tion, only  four-fifths  as  much  cyanide  of  sodium  is  necessary  as 
cyanide  of  potash.  When  three  pounds  of  cyanide  of  potash  are 
called  for,  one  may  employ  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  cyanide 
of  sodium.  The  same  quantity  of  acid  and  water  as  directed  for 
use  with  the  potash  compound  will  give  best  results. 

Get  from  a  grocer  a  hundred  or  more  manila  sacks,  No.  8, 
10,  or  12.  One  will  need  two  sacks  for  every  three  pounds  of 
cyanide.  Do  not  use  the  heavy  paper  sacks,  so-called  "sugar 
sacks."  Cloth  sacks  must  never  be  employed.  These  paper  bags 
are  to  be  doubled,  one  being  carefully  placed  inside  another.  The 
cyanide,  after  being  broken  up,  is  placed  in  these  sacks  within  an 
hour  or  two  of  the  time  when  it  is  to  be  used,  but  must  not  be 
left  in  the  sacks  for  any  length  of  time — four  hours  or  over  night, 
for  example.  Torn  sacks  must  be  rejected. 

When  ready  to  fumigate,  but  not  before,  this  cyanide  should 
be  done  up  in  three-pound  packages,  use  double  manila  bags — 
that  is,  one  inside  another — of  such  size  as  to  permit  the  paper 
to  be  brought  together  and  securely  tied  above  the  cyanide, 
without  tearing.  As  many  four-gallon  crocks  should  be  rented  or 
purchased  as  there  are  packages  of  cyanide.  If,  however,  the 
entire  plant  is  not  to  be  treated  at  one  time,  only  sufficient  jars 
are  needed  for  the  portion  to  be  treated,  since  the  same  crocks 


356       MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 

can  be  cleaned  and  used  again.  These  crocks,  after  being  cleaned, 
are  in  no  way  injured  for  household  use  later  by  having  been  used 
for  this  purpose. 

Small  mills — that  is,  mills  in  which  there  are  not  more  than 
ten  or  twelve  jars  on  a  story — may  be  treated  by  dropping  the 
charges  by  hand.  We  find  that,  under  ordinary  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  mills,  about  twenty-five  seconds  elapse  between  the 
dropping  of  the  charge  and  the  giving  off  of  the  fumes  in  fatal 
quantity.  Where  the  floor  is  not  too  much  obstructed  by  spouts 
or  machinery,  two  level-headed  men  can  walk  rapidly  from  jar  to 
jar,  dropping  a  bag  in  each  jar,  and  descend  to  the  floor  below 
without  delay,  closing  the  trap-door,  or  improvised  cover  of  build- 
ing paper,  as  they  go  down.  Ten  jars  could  easily  be  treated  thus 
in  less  than  twenty  seconds.  In  other  words,  the  men  would  be 
in  the  story  below  before  the  jar  first  treated  began  to  give  off  a 
dangerous  quantity  cf  the  gas,  and  as  the  gas  always  ascends, 
being  lighter  than  air,  operators  on  the  floor  below  are,  for  a 
while,  perfectly  safe.  Large  mills,  however,  have  to  be  strung. 

Stringing  a  large  mill  consists  in  running  stout  cords,  such  as 
window  cord,  from  the  ground  outside  the  building  to  various 
windows  on  each  floor.  One  set  of  cords  intended  for  lowering  the 
cyanide  is  passed  into  the  building,  and  the  other  set  of  cords  so 
attached  to  the  windows  that  they  can  be  pulled  down  or  lowered, 
after  the  process,  thus  insuring  complete  ventilation  before  the 
mill  is  entered. 

The  cord  by  which  the  cyanide  is  lowered  into  the  crocks,  after 
being  passed  through  a  hole  in  the  window  casing  above  the  win- 
dow, is  continued  through  a  strong  screw-eye  fastened  to  the 
ceiling  or  beam  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  from  the  window.  Smaller 
strings,  each  capable  of  supporting  a  weight  of  eight  or  ten  pounds, 
are  fastened  to  this  cord  after  it  has  passed  through  the  screw-eyes. 
The  number  of  strings  attached  to  all  the  cords  entering  a  certain 
story  should  correspond  to  the  number  of  three-pound  packages 
of  cyanide  to  be  used  on  that  flocr.  These  smaller  strings  should 
run  off  in  various  directions,  in  order  that  the  charge  may  be  well 
distributed,  care  being  taken  to  so  arrange  them  as  to  avoid 
friction  with  any  machinery.  .  These  strings  should  be  passed 
through  convenient  screw-eyes,  each  one  finally  hanging  to  the 
floor  at  the  point  decided  upon  for  the  placing  of  a  jar. 

The  first  screw-eye  near  the  window,  through  which  the  heavy 
cord  passes,  should  be  large  enough  to  receive  two  of  the  heavier 


THE  METHOD  BRIEFLY  DESCRIBED 


357 


cords;  for,  in  order  to  insure  the  lowering  of  all  packages,  we  tie 
a  second  cord  so  that  it  will  not  slip,  securely  to  the  first  one. 
About  eight  feet  from  the  first  screw-eye,  toward  the  window,  pass 
it  through  the  screw-eye,  and  attach  a  heavy  weight  to  same.  If 
the  jars  have  been  placed  in  position — and  it  is  well  that  they 
should  be  before  the  next  step,  since  this  enables  the  workmen 
to  locate  at  a  glance  the  whereabouts  of  the  perpendicular  strings 


Fia.  362. — The  proper   way   to   hang  a  bag 
above  a  jar. 


FIG.  363. — The  wrong  way  to  hang  a  bag 
above  a  jar. 


—they  must  be  absolutely  empty,  the  preparation  of  the  acid  and 
water  being  left  until  later. 

Reliable  men  should  next  be  sent  through  the  building  with  the 
packages  of  cyanide.  They  should  tie  one  package  most  securely 
to  each  perpendicular  string.  The  package  should  hang  by  its 
neck  a  good  ten  inches  above  the  top  of  the  jar  (Figs.  362  and  363), 
and  the  men  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  string  will  stretch,  and 
act  accordingly.  The  charges  of  cyanide  being  all  tied,  the  next 
step  is  to  place  the  water  and  acid  in  proper  proportions  in  the 
jars.  Each  jar  must  first  be  moved  away  at  least  three  feet  from 
under  its  charge  of  cyanide.  The  necessity  for  this  is  evident. 


358  MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 

Careful  workmen  then  pour  the  right  amount  of  water,  six  and 
three-fourths  pounds  for  every  three  pounds  of  cyanide,  into  each 
jar.  The  acid  should  never  be  introduced  first.  Then,  assuming 
that  a  three-pound  charge  of  cyanide  is  to  be  used  in  each  case, 
four  and  one-half  pounds  of  the  sulfuric  acid  is  added  to  the 
water  in  each  jar.  If  acid  is  introduced  first  and  then  the  water, 
the  jar  is  likely  to  crack.  This  must  be  done  with  care  and  every 
precaution  taken  to  keep  all  cyanide  from  proximity  to  the  add. 
The  fumes  arising  when  the  acid  is  added  to  the  water  are  in  no 
way  dangerous.  The  next  step  is  to  carefully  place  each  jar  under 
its  proper  package  of  cyanide,  beginning  at  the  top  story  and  working 
down.  The  bag  should  hang  at  least  six  inches  above  its  jar,  but 
not  so  high  that  it  will  not  reach  the  acid  when  lowered  from  the 
outside  of  the  building.  The  string  used  to  suspend  the  bags 
must  be  strong,  and  must  have  no  weak  places  to  invite  accidents. 

Previous  to  this,  or  while  it  is  being  done,  care  should  be  taken 
that  every  window  is  tightly  closed,  and  it  is  assumed  that  all 
cats  which  a  miller  may  wish  to  save  will  have  been  previously 
removed  from  the  building.  The  ground  floor  being  reached,  and 
all  men  accounted  for,  the  doors  of  the  mill  should  be  closed,  and 
the  charges  on  every  floor,  beginning  with  the  top  story,  lowered, 
by  loosening  the  ropes  connected  with  them  and  fastened  outside. 
Do  not  loosen  any  rope  the  freeing  of  which  will  open  a  window. 
Further,  if  by  chance  any  window  has  been  overlooked,  and  is 
found  to  be  open  after  the  men  have  left  the  mill,  it  is  not  safe  to 
let  any  one  enter  the  building  to  correct  the  oversight. 

Should,  by  any  chance,  a  bag  fall  into  a  "  loaded  "  jar  by  the 
breaking  of  a  string,  or  through  imperfect  tying,  the  men  working 
on  that  floor  should  leave  the  floor  instantly  for  the  floor  next 
below,  closing  the  door  or  opening  through  which  they  pass,  and 
they  must  not  enter  that  floor  again  until  it  has  been  thoroughly 
aired  after  treatment. 

Time  Required. — The  charge  is  best  set  off  at  about  5  o'clock 
P.M.,  and  the  mill  left  closed  until  7  A.M.  next  day;  guards  should 
be  left  about  the  building  over  night,  and  every  necessary  pre- 
caution taken  to  guard  against  accident  through  carelessness  or 
ignorance.  Do  not  fumigate  if  a  strong  wind  is  blowing;  a  per- 
fectly still  night  is  most  desirable. 

After  the  Fumigation. — At  6  or  7  the  following  morning  open 
all  doors  and  windows  possible  from  the  outside.  After  two  hours' 
airing,  the  writer  does  not  hesitate  to  enter  any  fumigated  building. 


WHAT  CONSTITUTES  SUCCESS  359 

The  first  thing  to  do,  is  to  go  over  the  plant  and  carefully  remove 
from  the  proximity  of  the  jars  any  charges  which  may  not  for 
any  reason  have  "gone  off."  These  bags  of  cyanide,  if  there  are 
any,  are  carefully  collected  and  removed  to  a  place  of  safety. 
Then  the  workmen  can  remove  and  clean  the  jars.  If  the  residue 
is  solid,  it  can  be  removed  with  any  suitable  iron  tool,  and  it  is 
soluble  in  water.  After  the  jars  are  thoroughly  washed  with  hot 
water,  they  are  perfectly  good  for  any  purpose  whatever. 

Theoretically,  this  liquid  residue  in  jars  is  not  poisonous, 
although  it  is  still  acid,  and  will  burn  skin  or  clothes.  But  the 
chemical  action  may  not  have  been  complete;  hence  great  care 
should  be  used  in  disposing  of  it.  A  very  good  plan  is  to  dig  a 
hole  in  the  ash  heap  or  in  the  earth,  dump  the  contents  of  each 
jar  therein,  and  cover  the  hole  after  all  jars  are  emptied.  The 
jars  should  afterward  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  scrubbed. 

If  by  any  chance  any  cyanide  should  have  been  overlooked  and 
should  drop  into  a  jar  when  a  workman  is  by  it,  he  and  others  in 
the  proximity  should  leave  that  floor  instantly,  closing  doors 
behind  them.  The  windows  being  open  at  this  time,  the  poisonous 
fumes  would  soon  be  carried  away. 

Limits  of  the  Effects. — Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  will  not  penetrate 
large  bins  of  grain;  nor  will  it  enter  fine  stuff  like  flour,  beyond  a 
very  short  distance,  possibly  an  inch.  It  therefore  behooves  a 
miller  to  take  away  and  burn  any  refuse,  or  fine  matter  on  the 
floors  or  in  the  spouts  which  he  has  reason  to  believe  is  infested. 
Marketable  mill  stuff,  bran,  etc.,  in  sacks  should  be  shipped  before 
treatment  or  immediately  after,  that  the  mill  may  not  be  rein- 
fested  from  contaminated  material.  All  machines,  spouts,  eleva- 
tors, etc.,  should  be  left  open  to  allow  of  free  entrance  of  gas. 
Since  this  gas  is  lighter  than  air;  it  would  not  be  safe  for  one  to 
drop  packages  of  cyanide  into  jars  of  acid  in  a  basement  and  then 
endeavor  to  leave  by  ascending  stairs.  Hence,  even  when  we 
drop  by  hand,  we  frequently  string  the  basement. 

What  Constitutes  Success  in  Treating  a  Mill. — It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  a  mill  sufficiently  infested  to  call  for  treatment 
necessarily  contains  many  millions  of  the  moths  in  some  stage. 
A  few  "worms"  or  pupae  concealed  in  some  crack  on  the  side  of  a 
window  or  elsewhere  may  escape  the  deadly  fumes,  but  the  finding 
of  five,  ten,  or  twenty  live  worms  after  the  fumigation  by  no  means 
indicates  failure.  Far  from  it;  for,  eliminating  all  unfavorable 
conditions,  it  might  take  several  years  for  a  mill  to  become  suffi- 


360  MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 

ciently  reinfested  from  this  source  alone  to  need  another  treatment. 

The  above  is,  in  brief,  the  method  of  procedure  in  fumigating 
mills  for  the  flour  moth.  The  gas  is  a  safe  and  most  efficient  agent 
when  used  with  care  by  those  familiar  with  its  nature.  One  good 
whiff  of  it,  however,  would  probably  be  fatal  to  any  human  being; 
hence,  its  use  should  never  be  entrusted  to  one  not  familiar  with  it. 

Rats  or  mice  perish  if  they  come  in  contact  with  the  fumes. 
Its  presence  can  be  detected  even  in  minute  quantities  by  the 
odor,  which  is  that  of  the  kernel  of  peach  pits. 

Opinions  of  Millers. — The  writer  is  in  receipt  of  many  state- 
ments from  millers  testifying  to  the  efficacy  of  this  method;  a 
few  of  these  are  repeated  here: 

From  the  owner  of  a  badly  infested  mill:  "The  work  seems 
to  have  been  a  success,  and  we  certainly  could  not  have  continued 
running  without  the  treatment.  I  have  been  around  the  mill  this 
morning,  making  a  personal  examination  of  the  results  of  the  work ; 
have  taken  out  of  spouts  a  large  amount  of  webbing  and  worms,  and 
on  a  careful  examination  do  not  find  a  single  live  worm  or  moth, 
and  some  of  the  masses  in  the  spouts  were  possibly  an  inch  thick." 

Another  mill  owner,  whose  plant  was  perhaps  one  of  the  worst 
in  this  connection  ever  seen,  says:  "The  process  seems  to  be  a 
most  successful  one  where  mills  are  infested  with  various  pests." 

The  head  miller  of  a  seriously  infested  milling  plant  in  Illinois 
writes:  "The  gas  made  a  clean  sweep  of  the  flour  moths  in  our 
mill.  I  have  not  seen  one  now  in  two  months,  and  am  keeping  a 
sharp  lookout  for  them  all  the  time.  This  seems  a  remarkable 
condition  to  one  familiar  with  the  premises  and  knowing  how  well 
they  were  established  in  the  mill." 

Another  miller  writes:  "We  have  been  using  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas  for  a  number  of  years  with  very  satisfactory 'results." 

An  Illinois  firm  writes:  "The  Monday  after  the  treatment  we 
cleaned  out  everything  thoroughly,  and  at  that  time  found  just 
one  live  moth.  .  .  .  We  are  well  pleased  with  the 
result  of  fumigation,  and  have  nothing  to  regret  except  the  fact 
that  we  did  not  go  at  it  four  years  ago." 

Another:  "Have  used  this  method  in  our  mills  for  the  last 
four  or  five  years,  and  find  it  very  satisfactory,  especially  when 
care  is  taken  in  making  proper  preparations." 

One  of  the  best  proofs  of  the  efficacy  of  this  method  was  shown 
in  the  fact  of  a  very  badly  infested  Illinois  mill  remaining  abso- 
lutely free  of  the  moth  for  fourteen  months  after  being  fumigated, 


A  FEW  OBSERVATIONS  361 

at  which  time  the  mill  was  closed  because  of  the  owner  giving  up 
the  business.  This  can  mean  but  one  thing,  namely,  that  the 
flour  moth  in  that  mill,  in  every  stage  of  its  life,  including  that  of 
the  eggs,  was  killed  by  the  process. 

A  miller  must  not  expect,  however,  that  one  treatment  will 
necessarily  eradicate  all  and  every  pest  in  the  mill.  There  is  the 
chance  that  the  figuring  of  the  amount  required  may  not  have  been 
accurate,  or  that  the  mill  may  not  have  been  properly  cleaned 
beforehand;  or  that  it  may  become  reinfested  from  some  source. 

Effect  on  Other  Insects. — A  few  of  our  mill  pests  do  not  yield 
readily  to  this  treatment,  which  is  so  efficacious  against  the  flour 
moth.  Fortunately  they  are  not  insects  which  are  particularly 
troublesome.  We  frequently  find  some  of  the  little  red  beetles, 
flour  beetles,  sometimes  erroneously  called  " weevils,"  alive  in  a 
mill  after  fumigation.  The  same  is  true  of  the  flattish,  yellowish- 
brown  " worms"  (meal  worms)  which  later  turn  into  black  beetles. 
These  two  pests  are  apt  to  bury  themselves  in  inaccessible  places, 
and  in  the  midst  of  fine  stuff,  thereby  precluding  the  possibility 
of  the  gas  reaching  them.  However,  these  insects  are  of  small 
importance  compared  with  the  flour  moth,  against  which  this 
process  is  especially  directed. 

A  few  observations  made  in  the  course  of  the  work  may  well 
be  given  here  for  the  information  of  millers. 

1.  The  size  of  lumps  of  cyanide  makes  but  little  difference, 
except  that  the  pieces,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  364), 
should  be  of  convenient  size  for  doing  up  in  bags.    The  corners  of 
small  pieces  do  not  push  through  the  paper  as  readily  as  do  the 
corners  of  large  pieces. 

2.  Hot  and  cool  acid  appear  to  act  with  equal  rapidity  upon 
the  uncovered  cyanide,  but  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  makes 
a  great  difference  in  the  matter  of  penetrating  a  double  paper 
sack — the  cooler  liquid  penetrating  the  paper  much  more  slowly. 

3.  The  make  of  sacks  appears  to  cause  no  difference  in  the 
time  required  for  the  acid  to  penetrate  to  the  cyanide,  so  long  as 
the  sacks  are  of  manila,  and  are  not  of  heavy  material,  such  as  is 
used  for  sugar  sacks.    The  latter  should  be  avoided.    Cloth  sacks 
should  never  be  used. 

4.  Mills  should  never  be  fumigated  for  less  time  than  one  night. 

5.  Twenty-five    seconds    elapsing    between    the    dropping  of 
cyanide  and  the  first  giving  off  of  gas  in  a  fatal  amount  is  a  con- 
servative time  estimate,  resulting  from  practical  tests  with  the 


362  MILL  AND  ELEVATOR  INSECTS 

liquid  at  a  temperature  of  140  degrees  P.  to  180  degrees  F.  This 
will  be  approximately  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  up  to  one- 
half  hour  after  mixing  the  acid  and  water,  with  the  mill  at  ordinary 
temperature. 

6.  Experiments  in  the  laboratory  and  practical  work  in  many 
mills  indicate  that  eggs  of  the  flour  moth  are  killed  by  this  gas, 
and  that  other  stages  of  the  insect  are  reached  and  killed  even 
when  covered  by  an  inch  or  more  of  webbing. 

Precautions. — 1.  Calculations  as  to  the  cubical  contents  of 
each  floor  to  be  fumigated  must  be  absolutely  accurate. 

2.  Get  only  the  best  material;  a  poor  grade  of  cyanide  or  acid 
can  not  be  relied  upon. 


FIG.  364. — Pieces  of  cyanide  should  be  from  two  to  four  inches  in  diameter. 

3.  Put  on  the  work  only  a  few  picked  men,  selecting  them 
from  among  the  most  intelligent  of  your  employes. 

4.  Take  every  measure  possible  to  prevent  the  cyanide  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  acid  until  the  critical  moment  when 
such  contact  is  desired.     Be  sure  that  each  step  of  the  process 
has  been  carefully  studied  beforehand.    Do  not  hang  bags  as  shown 
in  figure  363. 

5.  Provide  for  thorough  ventilation  from  the  outside.    Do  not 
enter  the  mill  until  it  has  been  well  aired  for  at  least  two  hours. 

6.  Removal  of  the  jars  from  the  building  after  the  operation 
and  the  disposing  of  the  residue  in  a  safe  place,  call  for  care,  and 
should  not  be  intrusted  to  men  who  are  careless  or  ignorant  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  gas.    They  should  be  cautioned  to  avoid  a 
jar  which  bubbles,  and  should  at  all  times  keep  their  faces  away 


QUESTIONS  363 

from  the  jars  they  are  handling.  This  residue,  if  the  chemical 
action  has  been  complete,  is  not  poisonous,  but  it  is  acid,  and  it  is 
always  best  to  "keep  on  the  safe  side."  It  should  therefore  be 
placed  where  it  will  do  no  harm. 

7.  The  lumps  of  cyanide,  when  placed  in  the  bags,  should  be 
approximately  between  two  and  four  inches  in  diameter. 

8.  If  one  must  deal  with  returned  sacks,  they  should  be  fumi- 
gated before  being  placed  in  mill,  as  they  are  a  prolific  source  of 
infestation. 

9.  Use  four-gallon  jars,  never  three  or  five,  if  it  is  avoidable. 
Three-gallon  crocks  frequently  boil  over. 

10.  For  his  own  satisfaction  in  doing  the  work  thoroughly, 
and  for  the  safety  of  his  employees,  no  miller  should  undertake 
this  operation  without  having  first  become  conversant  with  every 
step  of  the  process. 

11.  Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  penetrates  readily  through  small 
cracks  and  crevices.     A  mill  in  close  juxtaposition  with  another 
building  not  controlled  by  the  miller,  or  within  ten  or  twelve 
feet  of  another  building  occupied  during  the  process,  would  pre- 
sent difficulties. 

12.  Although  this  gas  is  not  explosive  at  the  strength  above 
recommended,  it  would  appear  to  be  a  desirable  precaution  to 
turn  off  lights  and  draw  fires  (if  boiler  or  engine-room  is  included 
or  is  reached  by  the  gas)  before  the  operation. 

13.  In  ordering  material  get  more  than  enough,  for  if  one 
finds  himself  short  at  the  last  moment,  and  is  at  a  distance  from 
the  source  of  supplies,  he  certainly  is  in  a  predicament.    Further, 
order  in  time.     Railroad  companies  will  not  ordinarily  freight 
acid  in  carboys  with  general  merchandise ;  they  may  hold  the  acid 
several  days  or  a  week,  waiting  for  an  oil  car. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Enumerate,  in  order  of  their  importance,  the  insect  pests  frequently  found 

in  a  flour  mill  and  warehouse. 

2.  Dp  the  same  for  those  which  are  peculiar  to  granaries  and  elevators. 

3.  Give  description,  life  history,  and  habits  of  the  Mediterranean  flour  moth. 

4.  Describe  in  detail  method  of  fumigation  for  mill  pests  with  hydrocyanic 

acid  gas. 

5.  How  would  you  proceed  to  eradicate  the  granary  weevil  from  a  bin  or 

elevator? 

6.  What  methods  should  be  employed  by  a  housekeeper  who  finds  her  flour 

bin  infested  with  the  confused  flour  beetle? 

7.  What  pests  mentioned  in  this  chapter  have  you  ever  found  in  stored 

products? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
OUR  INSECT  FRIENDS 

NOT  all  insects  are  injurious.  Some  are  decidedly  useful,  and 
the  useful  species  may  be  classified  in  two  groups: 

1.  Those  directly  beneficial  to  man,  such  as  the  silkworm, 
honey-bee,  lac  insect,  from  whose  activities  we  get  shellac; 
cochineal  insect,  the  source  of  a  beautiful  dye;  blister  beetle, 
used  in  medicine. 

Grasshoppers,  classified  as  injurious  insects,  were  used  as  food 


FIG.  365.— Ground  beetles.     (After  Brehm.) 

by  some  Indians,  and  became,  to  that  extent,  useful.  White 
grubs  have  been  recently  eaten  and  declared  palatable. 

2.  Those  which,  by  destroying  other  harmful  insects,  are 
indirectly  beneficial.  Again,  the  indirectly  beneficial  insects  may 
be  further  divided  into  four  groups : 

(a)  The  predaceotis  insects,  which  seize  and  devour  other 
species.  They  include:  The  ground  beetles  (Fig.  365),  tiger 
beetles,  lady  beetles  (Figs.  366  and  367),  or  so-called  "lady 
364 


OUR  INSECT  FRIENDS 


365 


FIG.  366. — Lady  beetles  ("lady  birds,"  "lady  bugs")  or  coccinellids;  a,  larva;  6,  pupa; 
c,  imago;  all  much  enlarged.     (U.  S.  Bu.  Ent.) 


on 
withm. 


FK;    3G/— Skins   of   lady   beetle   larva?  FIG.  368. — Syrphus  flies;  1  and  2  adults- 

bark,  split  open  and  showing  pupae  3,  larvae  eating  plant  lice;  lower  figure  con- 
tracted larva;  5  and  6,  view  of  larva,  en- 
larged, and  pupa. 


366 


OUR  INSECT  FRIENDS 


c  <J  «  fr 

FIG.  369. — A  lace-winged  fly:  a,  enemy  of  plant  lice,  natural  size;  b,  larva,  greatly  enlarged 
c  and  d,  pupa;  e,  web  on  leaf;  /,  cocoon;  g,  egg  cluster;  h,  egg  on  stalk,  greatly  enlarged. 


FIG.  370. — Ichneumon  parasites  attacking  caterpillars. 


OUR  INSECT  FRIENDS 


367 


FIG.  371. — Caterpillar  from  which 
larval  parasites  are  emerging.  The 
adult  chalcid  fly  is  shown  on  right. 


birds,"  which  with  their  larvae  prey 
upon  plant  lice  and  scale  insects; 
syrphus  flies  (Fig.  368),  whose  young 
have  a  similar  diet;  the  lace-winged 
fly  (Fig.  369)  or  aphis  lion,  some 
wasps  and  others. 

(6)  There  are  parasitic  forms  which 
lay  eggs  on  or  in  other  insects  or  their 
eggs.  The  most  notable  group  of 
parasites  is  the  Ichneumonidce  (Fig. 
370  illustrates  a  large  species),  a  hyme- 
nopterous  family  containing  over  10,000 
species,  all  parasites.  The  Chalcididce 
(Fig.  371),  also  belonging  to  the  Hyme- 
noptera,  includes  about  4000  species. 
The  Braconidce  and  the  Proctotrypidoe. 
The  members  of  the  latter  family  are 
very  small,  and  are  chiefly  parasitic  on 
eggs  of  insects.  Among  the  Diptera  we 
have  the  bee  flies  (Fig.  372)  and  the 
Tachinidce,  very  abundant  in  number 
of  species.  Their  white  eggs  are  fre- 
quently seen  on  tent  caterpillars  and 
army  worms  (Fig.  373). 

(c)  Among  the  indirectly  beneficial 
insects  we  ought  also  to  include  several 


Fin.  ?72. — S.  orens,  a  bombyliid  or  bee  fly.  The  larvse  of  some  members  of  the  family 
are  parasitic  in  the  egg  pockets  of  grasshoppers;  a,  larva;  6,  head  of  same  from  the  side; 
c,  same  from  the  front;  d,  preanal  spiracle.  (After  Riley.) 


368 


OUR  INSECT  FRIENDS 


forms  of  scavengers:  The  burying  beetles  remove  carrion,  offen- 
sive both  to  the  eye  and  nose.  The  flesh  fly  larvae  and  others 
devour  meat  which  either  is  or  will  be  putrid.  Pomace  flies  feed 
upon  decaying  fruit.  Flies  and  beetles  which  breed  in  and  feed 
upon  excrement  should  also  be  regarded  as,  in  a  way,  beneficial. 

(d)  As  plant  pollinators  many  insects  are  of  invaluable  assist- 
ance to  man,  cross-fertilizing  many  varieties  of  fruit  which  might 
ordinarily  be  sterile. 

Parasitic  Insects. — Of  all  beneficial  forms,  however,  the  para- 
sitic insects,  from  an  economic  standpoint,  are  the  most  important, 


FIG.  373. — Red-tailed  tachina  fly,  one  of  the  Tachinidw;  a,  fly  natural  size;  b,  fly  en- 
larged; c,  army  worm,  natural  size,  upon  which  eggs  have  been  laid;  d,  parasitized  army 
worms,  enlarged.  (After  Slingerland.) 

and  so  highly  is  their  work  against  injurious  forms  appreciated 
that  in  many  instances  our  government  has  gone  to  the  expense 
of  importing  not  only  "lady  beetles,"  or  Coccinellids,  which 
belong  to  the  predaceous  group,  but  large  numbers  of  parasites 
which  materially  reduce  the  ranks  of  the  various  injurious  forms 
upon  which  they  prey.  Rearing  parasites  for  economic  use  has 
been  found  practical  in  this  country. 

Parasites  on  Parasites. — It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  many 
of  these  parasites  are  in  turn  themselves  parasitized,  their 
parasites  being  referred  to  as  secondary  parasites.  Even  the  second- 
ary parasites  are  frequently  the  victims  of  tertiary  parasites,  and 


DISEASES  OF  INSECTS  369 

sometimes  these,  though  very  rarely,  may  possibly  be  attacked 
by  quarternary  parasites.  This  is  called  hyper  parasitism.  This 
condition  of  affairs  is  sometimes  humorously  described  thus: 

Great  fleas  have  little  fleas 

Upon  their  backs  to  bite  'em, 
And  little  fleas  have  lesser  fleas, 

And  so  ad  infinitum. 

Examples. — The  Hessian  fly,  which  is  one  of  our  worst  wheat 
pests,  is  kept  within  bounds  almost  entirely  through  the  agency 
of  native  parasites.  In  1895  a  severe  outbreak  of  the  white- 
marked  tussock  moth  injured  a  large  number  of  shade  trees  in 
Washington,  but  more  than  97  per  cent  of  these  caterpillars  were 
destroyed  by  parasites,  and  the  pest  did  not  appear  the  next  year. 
L.  O.  Howard,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Entomology, 
states  that  in  1880  Hubbard  found  "that  a  minute  parasite, 
Trichogramma  pretiosa,  alone  and  unaided,  almost  annihilated 
the  fifth  brood  of  the  cotton  worm  in  Florida,  fully  90  per  cent 
of  the  eggs  of  this  crop  enemy  being  infested  by  the  parasite." 

Summarizing,  we  can  classify  beneficial  insects  under  the 
following  heads  and  sub-heads : 

1.  Directly  Beneficial. 

A.  Insects  themselves. 

a.  Food  for  Indians,  such  as  Grubs,  Grasshoppers,  or  "Locusts," 

and  some  Maggots. 

b.  Food  for  Animals;  for  Birds,  Poultry,  Gophers,  Skunks. 

c.  Medicine:    "Spanish  Fly." 

B.  Products  of  Insects. 

a.  Honey  from  Honey-bees. 

b.  Shellac  from  Lac  Insect. 

c.  Silk  from  Silkworm  Moth. 

d.  Ink  from  Galls.     (In  former  days.) 

e.  Cochineal. 

2.  Indirectly  Beneficial. 

a.  Pollination  of  Fruit  Trees,  Berries,  Clover,  and  other  plants. 
6.  Removers   of    Carrion    and    Waste    Matter:   Flies,    Carrion    Beetle, 
Burying  Beetle. 

c.  Predaceous:   Ground    Beetles,     Digger    Wasps,     Ladybird     Beetles, 

Tiger  Beetles,  Syrphus  Flies,  Lace-winged  Flies. 

d.  Parasitic:   Large    2-    and    4-winged;    Small    4- winged;    Tiny    Egg 

Parasites. 

Diseases   of  Insects. — We   can   hardly  dismiss  this   subject 
without  consideration  of  two  other  valuable  allies  of  man  in  his 
fight  against   injurious   insects,  namely,  bacterial   and    fungous 
24 


370 


OUR  INSECT  FRIENDS 

tfv-     " 


FIG.  374. — Caterpillars  killed  by  a  bacterial  disease. 


QUESTIONS 


371 


diseases,  which  at  times  attack  insect  pests  of  agriculture.    Figure 

374  represents  caterpillars  killed  by  a  bacterial  disease.     Figure 

375  shows  a  grasshopper  which  has 
died  on  account  of  a  disease.     In  the 
former   case   the   dead    insects   hang 
limp  and  for  a  time  after  death  are 
filled    with    fluid,    denoting    bacterial 
activity.     The  body  contents  of  an 
insect  killed  by  a  fungus   are    com- 
paratively dry. 

At  times  one  finds  thousands  of 
chinch  bugs  in  the  autumn  killed  by 
a  fungus  originating  in  the  field. 
Several  attempts  were  made  some 
years  ago  to  introduce  among  chinch 
bugs  a  fungus  prepared  in  the  labora- 
tory, with  the  hope  that  their  numbers 
might  be  materially  reduced  thereby. 
This  did  not  prove  practical,  since, 
apart  from  the  difficulties  attendant 
upon  its  distribution,  it  required  damp  FIG.  375.— A  grasshopper  killed  by 
weather  in  order  to  grow,  and  under 

such  conditions  we  find  a  fungous  disease  originating  naturally 
in  the  field  attacking  the  insects  in  question. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  four  directly  beneficial  insects,  and  state  why  each  is  useful. 

2.  What  is  a  predaceous  insect?    Name  four  useful  forms  in  this  group. 

3.  What  is  a  parasitic  insect?    Give  four  examples. 

4.  How,  in  this  connection,  would  you  classify  burying  beetles,  flesh-flies 

dung  beetles,  grasshoppers,  and  white  grubs? 

5.  How  do  bacterial  and  fungous  diseases  affect  insects? 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

DISREGARDING  any  sentimental  views  upon  birds  caused  by 
their  song  and  beauty,  and  basing  our  opinions  as  to  their  use- 
fulness or  the  contrary  purely  upon  a  study  of  their  food  habits 
at  different  seasons  and  in  different  years,  we  may  safely  say  that 
almost  all  of  our  common  birds,  including  a  goodly  number  of 
hawks  and  owls,  the  so-called  " birds  of  prey,"  are  useful  to  the 
agriculturist  and  fruit-raiser.  Some  are  more  so  than  others. 
A  few  are  of  doubtful  utility!  A  still  smaller  number,  representing 
a  very  small  proportion  of  our  bird  fauna,  we  now  regard,  in  the 
light  of  our  present  knowledge,  as  injurious.  It  is  possible  that 
additional  investigation  may  cause  us  to  entertain  a  different 
opinion  of  the  latter. 

Killing  Useful  Birds. — A  farmer,  orchardist,  berry-raiser,  or 
truck  gardener  has  a  perfect  right  to  protect  his  crops  from  exces- 
sive bird  injury.  We  have  known  occasions  where  resort  to  a 
shotgun  was  justifiable.  But,  in  such  cases,  one  should  be  abso- 
lutely sure  that  the  bird  he  seeks  to  destroy  is  really  guilty;  that 
the  injury  caused  is  serious;  and,  particularly,  that  the  benefits 
accruing  from  the  destruction  of  a  large  number  of  insects  on  the 
part  of  the  bird  in  question,  during  the  nesting  season,  do  not 
more  than  compensate  for  the  few  berries  or  small  amount  of  other 
fruit  or  of  garden  or  farm  crop  destroyed.  For  this  information 
the  agriculturist  has  to  rely  mainly  upon  the  results  of  the  studies 
of  experts  in  this  line.  It  requires  long  and  careful  observations 
and  the  examination  of  a  large  series  of  birds'  stomachs  to  place 
this  matter  upon  even  an  approximately  accurate  basis. 

Encouraging  Nesting. — In  this  connection,  we  should  note 
that  the  parent  birds  secure  an  enormous  number  of  insects  which 
form  the  main  part  of  the  food  of  nestlings,  as  near  the  nest  as 
possible.  If  the  nest  is  near,  more  trips  are  made  each  day;  and 
consequently,  more  insects  are  consumed.  A  bird  nesting  a  mile 
away  from  a  berry  patch  is  not  going  to  cover  that  distance  seek- 
ing for  insects  if  it  can  get  them  near  at  hand.  Therefore,  it 
behooves  the  agriculturist  to  encourage  nesting  of  birds  upon  his 
own  place. 
372 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  BIRDS  373 

Teaching  Boys  to  Protect  Birds. — Teachers  in  our  city  and 
country  schools  have  an  excellent  opportunity  to  inculcate  in 
the  minds  of  their  boys  a  desire  to  study  the  habits  of  birds  and 
to  discourage  the  maiming  and  killing  of  song  birds  and  the 
destruction  of  their  nests  and  eggs.  Usually  the  small  boy  who 
would  "make  a  collection"  of  birds'  eggs  wishes  to  do  so  because 
they  are  attractive  to  him,  partly  by  their  color  and  partly,  per- 
haps, by  the  difficulties  involved  in  securing  them.  No  doubt  he 
is  also  influenced  by  a  desire  "to  collect,"  which  sometimes  makes 
imperative  demands  upon  both  young  and  old.  The  loss  to  agri- 
culture by  such  collections  is  decidedly  great.  This  loss  is  avoid- 
able if  the  boy's  ambitions  can  be  turned  into  other  channels. 
Acts  of  this  kind,  egg-collecting  without  a  license,  and  the  killing 
of  song  birds,  are,  for  the  most  part,  punishable  by  law.  But  if  the 
child  can  be  led  to  observe  these  laws  by  having  an  intelligent  in- 
terest in  the  birds  themselves,  the  result  is  better  than  if  fear  is  the 
instigating  cause.  We  should  emphasize  the  need  upon  the  part 
of  both  adults  and  young  of  a  careful  and  discriminating  judgment 
of  birds  based  upon  their  food  habits  before  condemning  them. 

Making  Friends  of  the  Birds. — We  should  encourage,  in  every 
way  possible,  their  continued  presence  on  the  farm,  in  the  garden, 
and  in  the  orchard.  We  can  do  this  in  many  ways:  (1)  By 
making  boxes  for  wrens,  bluebirds,  and  martins.  (2)  By  expos- 
ing material  used  in  nest-building.  (3)  By  winter  feeding.  (4) 
By  fostering  a  wise  and  humane  policy  toward  our  feathered 
associates.  (5)  By  providing  watering  places.  (6)  By  planting 
fruit-bearing  shrubs. 

The  recent  enactment  of  laws  by  Congress  protecting  birds 
during  their  migration  is  one  of  the  best  evidences  of  the  growth 
of  a  higher  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  more  practical  sentiment  in 
this  direction. 

Classification  of  Birds. — Birds  belong  to  the  Class  Aves  of  the 
Vertebrate  Phylum.  The  Class  is  divided  by  some  ornithologists 
into  eleven  Orders.  The  six  of  most  interest,  perhaps,  to  the 
farmer  are: 

Insessores  (Passeres)  or  Perchers. 

Raptores  (Accipitres  and  Striges),  birds  of  prey. 

Picariae,  woodpeckers  and  others. 

Gallina?   grouse,  partridge,  quail  and  common  fowl. 

Coccyges,  cuckoos  and  kingfishers. 

Herodiones,  herons,  and  bitterns. 


374       RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Families  of  Perchers. — The  Orders,  in  turn,  contain  groups 
known  as  Families,  hence  in  the  Order  Insessores  we  have  many 
groups  represented  in  part  by  the  ten  families  given  below : 

Tyrannidse,  or  fly  catchers. 

Corvidse,  crows,  jays  and  magpies. 

Icteridse,  orioles,  blackbirds  and  meadow  larks. 

FringillicUc,  sparrows  and  finches. 

Ampelida3,  wax  wings. 

Vireonidse,  vireos. 

Mniotiltidse,  wood  warblers. 

Turdidae,  thrushes. 

TroglodytidaB,  wrens. 

Paridae,  chickadee,  titmice,  and  others. 

Genera  and  Species. — As  in  other  groups  of  animals,  each 
family  is  divided  into  genera,  each  genus  made  up  of  a  number  of 
species,  and  frequently  species  have  sub-species,  or  varieties  based 
upon  minor  variations  from  the  type. 

In  the  following  pages  it  has  seemed  best  to  select  from  the 
Class  certain  of  the  more  common  birds — for  the  most  part  im- 
portant to  the  farmer,  because  of  their  insect-eating  habits,  or  in 
some  instances  because  of  injurious  traits.  It  appears  more  suit- 
able for  the  purpose  at  hand  to  describe  these  without  reference 
to  scientific  groupings. 

We  have  named  only  a  portion  of  the  Orders  in  the  Class  and 
also  limited  our  list  of  families  occurring  in  one  order  to  those 
which  contain  the  species  described  in  the  following  pages. 

Robin  (Plate  2,  Fig.  1). — What  would  a  country  home  be 
without  robins  on  the  lawn!  As  a  rule,  the  robin,  which  is  really 
a  thrush,  is  fairly  useful;  but  a  large  part  of  its  food  is  fruit,  and 
it  eats  many  useful  beetles.  Because  of  our  general  attachment 
to  the  bird,  agriculturists  will  probably  try  every  possible  pro- 
tective means  before  having  recourse  to  the  shotgun  when  fruit 
is  to  be  saved. 

Individuals  of  this  species  are  found  hi  the  North  frequently 
very  late  in  the  fall,  and  occasionally,  where  evergreen  thickets 
afford  shelter,  even  in  the  winter.  Generally  they  begin  to  arrive 
in  the  northern  states  the  latter  part  of  March  or  early  in  April 
—welcome  harbingers  of  spring.  Two  broods  are  reared. 

Beetles  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  robin's  diet  during  the 
summer.  Beal  (U.  S.  Biol.  Survey,  Bui.  171)  gives  a  list  of  nearly 
one  hundred  plants,  the  seeds  of  which  have  been  found  in  robins' 
stomachs.  Most  prominent  among  them  are  blueberry,  dogwood, 


SOME  USEFUL  BIRDS 


K.\(iRAVIN(i,     Ml-I.S. 


L.     WOOD.     DEL. 

Plate  2, 

1.   American  Robin.     2.   Myrtle  Warbler  or  Yellow-rumped  Warbler.     3.   Chickadee. 
4.   Screech  Owl.     5.   White-bellied  Nuthatch.     6.  Chipping  Sparrow;  "Chippie.1 


THE  CAT-BIRD 


375 


woodbine,  sumach,  blackberry,  cherry  (domestic  and  wild),  cedar, 
mulberry,  etc.  Since  most  of  these  seeds  pass  through  the  alimen- 
tary canal  with  fertility  unimpaired,  the  robin  is  a  disseminator 
of  these  plants. 

A  western  variety  of  robin  is  a  resident  in  western  Oregon 
the  entire  year.  Its  habits  are  similar 
to  the  eastern  congener.  Closely  allied 
to  these  birds  is  the  varied  thrush  or 
Oregon  robin,  also  a  resident  on  the 
Pacific  coast  through  the  entire  year. 

The  Varied  Thrush  or  Oregon 
Robin. — This  beautiful  and  somewhat 
retiring  bird  is  common  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  ranging  as  far  north  as  Alaska. 
It  has  a  back  of  slate  color,  with 
orange-brown  markings  on  shoulder; 
a  broad  black  collar  stretches  across 
the  breast  and  runs  up  on  either  side 
of  neck  and  head;  the  under  parts  are 
orange,  as  is  also  a  strip  over  the  eye. 
This  bird  is  nearly  ten  inches  long.  It 
nests  in  bushes.  It  is  charged  with 
no  bad  habits. 

The  Cat-Bird.— Among  the  birds 
of  doubtful  utility,  we  place  with  re- 
luctance our  friend,  the  cat-bird. 
Although  it  has  a  delightful  song, 
equal  or  surpassing  the  brown  thrush, 
it,  nevertheless,  is  not  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  farmer.  It  eats  some  in- 
sects, it  is  true,  but  later  in  the  season 
"  these  insects  are  largely  replaced  by 
cherries,  currants,  raspberries,  and 
strawberries.  Three-fourths  of  the  food  of  eleven  July  cat-birds 
consisted  of  small  fruits,  mostly  (sixty-four  per  cent)  blackberries. 
Nine  per  cent  of  beetles  had  been  taken,  most  of  them  being 
predaceous  (beneficial)."1 

Nevertheless,  on  account  of  its  song  and  friendliness,   and 

^rom  observations  by  Forbes,  of  Illinois,  in  "  Birds  in  Their  Relation  to 
Man." 


FIG.  376.— Cat-bird.     (After 
Fuertes.) 


376        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

from  the  fact  that  it  eats  some  injurious  insects,  the  cat-bird  will 
doubtless  continue  to  be  protected,  except  in  cases  of  particularly 
flagrant  destructiveness.  Figure  376  is  an  excellent  illustration 
of  the  species. 

The  Brown  Thrush  or  Brown  Thrasher. — The  illustration  here 
given  (Fig.  377)  is  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  recognize  this  very 
common  bird  of  our  thickets  and  fields.  The  bird  is  rufous  brown 
above,  with  black  spots  on  a  white  ground  below.  Its  colors 


FIG.   377. — Brown  thrush.     (After  Fuertes.) 

and  conspicuously  long  tail  make  it  a  notable  object  when  it 
seeks  a  prominent  position  on  a  lofty  branch,  preparatory  to 
singing. 

Its  song,  while  .striking,  wi\\  not  compare,  we  believe,  with 
those  of  the  wood  thrush  or  Wilson  thrush,  nor  with  that  of  the 
cat-bird.  One  of  its  chief  charms,  perhaps,  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  is  an  accompaniment  of  the  welcome  spring  weather.  We  have 
been  so  struck  by  the  little  rhyme  credited  to  " Olive"  in  " Citizen 
Bird,"  which  certainly  is  very  descriptive  of  its  habits  and  song, 
that  we  venture  to  repeat  it  here; 


WOOD  THRUSH  AND  VEERY  377 

My  creamy  breast  is  speckled 
(Perhaps  you'd  call  it  freckled) 
Black  and  brown. 

My  pliant  russet  tail 
Beats  like  a  frantic  flail, 
Up  and  down. 

In  the  top  branch  of  a  tree 
You  may  chance  to  glance  at  me, 
When  I  sing. 

But  I'm  very,  very  shy, 
When  I  silently  float  by, 
On  the  wing. 

Whew  there!   Hi  there!   Such  a  clatter! 
What's  the  matter— what's  the  matter? 
Really,  really? 

Digging,  delving,  raking,  sowing, 
Corn  is  sprouting,  corn  is  growing, 

Plant  it,  plant  it! 

Gather  it,  gather  it! 

Thresh  it,  thresh  it! 

Hide  it,  hide  it,  do! 

(I  see  it — and  you.) 

Oh!   I'm  that  famous  scratcher, 
H-a-r-p-o-r-h-y-n-c-h-u-s   r-u-f-u-s — Thrasher. 
Cloaked  in  brown. 

Its  Food. — While  the  brown  thrush  may  take  a  little  fruit  or 
grain,  it  is  a  good  insect  eater.  As  a  ground  feeder,  scratching 
among  fallen  leaves,  it  picks  up  many  injurious  insects,  and,  it 
must  be  admitted,  some  useful  forms  as  well — the  ground  beetles, 
for  example. 

Wood  Thrush  and  Veery. — The  first-named  bird,  a  beautiful 
singer,  is  about  eight  and  one-fourth  inches  long,  with  distinct, 
sharply  outlined,  large,  round,  black  spots  on  the  whitish  breast 
and  under  parts  (Fig.  378). 

A  closely  allied  thrush  and  also  a  beautiful  singer  is  the  Wilson 
thrush  or  veery  (Fig.  379).  The  latter  species  is  a  smaller  bird, 
a  little  over  seven  inches  long;  the  white  breast  is  more  or  less 
tinged  with  cream  and  dotted  with  small,  somewhat  indistinct, 
brownish,  wedge-shaped  spots. 

The  upper  parts  of  both  of  these  birds  are  brown,  but  in  the 
veery  the  colors  are  not  as  bright  as  in  the  wood  thrush.  Both 
lay  greenish-blue  eggs  in  a  coarse  nest,  modelled  somewhat  after 


378        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

the  nest  of  the  robin.  The  nest  of  the  veery  may  be  on  or  close  to 
the  ground.  The  beautiful  songs  of  both  of  these  birds,  coming 
from  the  dense  woods,  if  once  heard  are  never  forgotten. 

Food  Habits. — They  are  both  important  insect  eaters.  In 
fact,  the  entire  thrush  family  must  be  credited  with  being  bene- 
factors of  the  farmer  and  fruit-raiser.  But  occasional  members 
may  be  attracted  to  berries  and  fruit,  notably  in  the  case  of  the 
robin.  Forbes,  after  a  somewhat  exhaustive  examination  of  their 
food  habits,  states  that  sixty-one  per  cent  of  the  food  of  thrushes 
consists  of  insects. 


FIG.  378.— Wood  thrush.     (After  Fuertes.) 

Mocking-Bird. — This  species,  distinctively  an  American  bird, 
is  rarely  seen  as  far  north  as  New  England,  but  ranges  through 
the  southern  United  States,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and 
is  particularly  abundant  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states. 
It  is  referred  to  as  the  "prince  of  musicians"  among  birds,  and 
deserves  the  title.  Individuals  in  captivity  appear  to  improve 
their  song  by  education  and  mimicry  until  there  is  hardly  a  song- 
ster whose  notes  may  not  be  repeated. 


BLUEBIRD  379 

The  mocking-bird  owes  its  popularity  almost  entirely  to  its 
powers  of  song,  for  its  gray  color  with  whitish  under  parts  is  not 
particularly  attractive. 

It  is  about  nine  to  ten  inches  long,  one-half  of  which  length 
is  represented  by  the  tail.  The  somewhat  bulky  and  misshapen 
nest  is  found  in  bushes  and  low  trees.  It  has  two  or  three  broods 
in  a  season.  Its  food  habits  are  similar  to  other  members  of  the 
thrush  family. 

Bluebird  (Plate  4,  Fig.  19). — -The  common  bluebird  is  too 
well  known  to  need  detailed  description.  It  is  found  in  many 


FIG.  379.— Wilson  thrush  or  veery.     (After  Fuertes.) 

parts  of  the  United  States,  Canada,  Mexico,  and  parts  of  Central 
America.  It  is  of  wide  distribution,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Rockies,  and  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  bird's 
upper  parts,  including  wings  and  tail,  are  bright  blue;  the  breast, 
throat,  and  sides  are  reddish.  The  length  is  seven  inches. 

Its  note  is  among  the  first  to  be  heard  in  the  spring  and  one 
of  the  last  in  the  fall,  at  which  latter  time  we  associate  it  with  the 
falling  leaves  of  Indian  summer.  To  the  writer  its  note  hi  the 
fall  has  always  appeared  to  take  on  additional  sadness,  as  if  lament- 
ing the  dying  of  the  year. 


380        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

It  nests  in  hollow  trees  and  in  boxes  erected  in  suitable  places. 
Its  nesting  should  be  encouraged  by  providing  it  with  plenty 
of  such  opportunities  for  housekeeping. 

An  examination  of  two  hundred  and  five  stomachs  showed  that 
seventy-six  per  cent  of  the  food  consisted  of  insects  and  their 
allies,  while  twenty-four  per  cent  was  made  up  of  vegetable  sub- 
stance. Beetles  constituted  twenty-eight  per  cent  of  the  whole 
food;  grasshoppers,  twenty-two;  caterpillars,  eleven;  and  various 
insects,  including  spiders,  comprised  the  remainder  of  the  diet. 
All  these  insects  are  more  or  less  harmful,  except  a  few  predaceous 
beetles,  which  amount  to  eight  per  cent.  Forbes,  of  Illinois, 
examined  one  hundred  and  eight  specimens  secured  in  every 
month  except  November  and  January.  Results  of  these  examina- 
tions prove  that,  although  the  bluebird  eats  some  insects  which 
are  beneficial,  and  occasionally  takes  a  raspberry  or  gooseberry, 
it  consumes  enormous  numbers  of  injurious  insects,  cut  worms, 
army  worms,  moths,  grasshoppers,  and  crickets.  It  is  undoubtedly 
a  beneficial  bird. 

Chickadee  (Plate  2,  Fig.  3). — This  familiar  bird  is  found  as  a 
resident  throughout  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
in  Canada  and  Alaska.  It  is  dear  to  us  because  of  its  cheerful 
activity  in  the  cold  of  winter,  when  almost  all  other  bird  friends 
have  left  us. 

Importance. — From  an  economic  standpoint  it  is  a  great  bene- 
factor, for  not  only  does  it  consume  large  numbers  of  insects  in 
summer,  but  more  than  one-half  the  winter  food  consists  of  insects 
and  their  eggs.  The  eggs  of  plant  lice  make  up  one-fifth  of  the 
entire  food.  In  fact,  the  destruction  of  these  eggs  on  fruit  and 
shade  trees  is  the  chief  beneficial  work  of  this  bird  in  the  winter, 
and  the  good  it  does  in  this  way  must  not  be  underestimated. 
Examinations  of  the  stomachs  or  crops  of  these  birds  have  shown 
that  sometimes  more  than  four  hundred  and  fifty  eggs  of  plant 
lice  are  consumed  by  one  bird  in  one  day.  Eggs  of  canker  worms 
and  tent  caterpillars  are  also  eaten.  Four  stomachs  or  crops 
examined  showed,  as  the  result  of  a  single  day's  feeding,  one 
thousand  and  twenty-eight  eggs  of  canker  worms.  Four  others 
contained  about  six  hundred  eggs  of  canker  worms  and  a  hundred 
and  five  mature  female  canker  worms.  Surely,  if  any  bird  de- 
serves protection,  it  is  this  one. 

Such  a  familiar  bird  hardly  calls  for  a  description.  The  head, 
back  of  neck,  and  throat  are  black ;  sides  of  head  and  neck,  whitish ; 


WHITE-BREASTED  NUT-HATCH 


381 


breast,  white;  sides,  washed  with  brownish  yellow.  The  length 
is  about  five  and  one-half  inches. 

It  nests  in  old  stumps  and  decayed  trees,  preferably  birch; 
the  holes  are  generally  not  far  from  the  ground. 

In  addition  to  its  cheerful  "chick-a-dee-dee,"  it  has  a  number 
of  other  notes,  some  of  them  extremely  musical.  (See  figure  380, 
and  plate  4.) 

House  Wren. — This  charming  little  bird  (Fig.  381),  always 
ready  to  accept  hospitality  from  our  citizens,  feeds  almost 
entirely  upon  insects.  Spiders  also  form  a  large  part  of  its  diet. 

It  will  readily  occupy  any  small  bird-house  provided  for  it. 


FIG.   380.— Chickadee. 

The  entrance  to  such  a  bird-houses  should  be  exactly  the  size  of 
a  quarter  of  a  dollar,  which  allows  the  wren  to  enter  but  keeps 
out  the  English  sparrow. 

The  wren  reaches  the  northern  tier  of  states  about  the  last  of 
April. 

White-Breasted  Nut-Hatch  (Plate  2,  Fig.  5).— It  is  one  of 
the  few  of  our  birds  which  is  commonly  seen  "  climbing "  down 
as  well  as  up  a  tree.  It  is  about  six  inches  long.  It  is  gray,  with 
white  under  parts;  top  of  head,  black;  back,  bluish.  This  species 
ranges  practically  all  over  the  entire  United  States  and  Mexico. 

Over  one-half  of  its  food  consists  of  insects.  It  nests  in  holes 
in  trees,  and  suitable  nests  can  be  made  to  imitate  these. 

This  is  one  of  the  few  birds  which  remain  in  the  most  northern 


382        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

states  over  winter,  at  which  time  it  frequently  associates  with 
chickadees,  downy  woodpeckers,  kinglets,  and  brown  creepers. 

Its  rather  coarse  note,  frequently  repeated,  has  been  likened 
to  the  word  "yank"  repeated  with  a  nasal  sound. 

A  close  cousin  of  this  bird,  the  red-breasted  nut-hatch,  has  a 
somewhat  more  northerly  range. 

Brown  Creeper  (Plate  3,  Fig.  10). — This  inconspicuous,  active 
bird  is  found  in  the  North  throughout  the  entire  year.  It  is  to 
be  ranked  among  our  most  useful  assistants  in  keeping  down 
injurious  insects,  for  it  eats  many  insects  in  the  hibernating  stage 
in  winter,  besides  consuming  large  numbers  of  insect  eggs,  which 
would  otherwise  hatch  in  the  spring.  It  appears  to  be  always  in 


FIG.  381.— House  wren.     (U.  S.  Biol.  Survey.) 

motion  in  the  daytime,  "creeping"  over  trunks  and  branches  on 
the  lookout  for  food. 

The  general  color  is  brown,  more  or  less  streaked  with  lighter 
colors.  It  is  white  below.  The  length  is  about  five  and  one-half 
inches.  The  ends  of  tail  feathers  are  stiff  and  are  pressed  against 
the  bark  of  the  tree  after  the  manner  of  woodpeckers.  The  bill 
is  slightly  curved. 

Myrtle  Warbler  or  Yellow-Rumped  Warbler  (Plate  2,  Fig.  2). 
—This  common  warbler  breeds  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  in  Canada.  It  is  found  in  small  flocks  among  bushes 
and  other  low  growth. 

Its  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  injurious  insects.  A  small 
part  only  is  represented  by  fruit  and  seeds.  It  is  particularly 


14 


L.    WOOD,    DEL 

Plate  3. 


SOME   USEFUL  BIRDS 


uri;.    KM.I:  \viv 


7.  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo.  8.  Red-eyed  Vireo.  9.  Downy  Woodpecker.  10.  Brown 
Creeper.  11.  Marsh  Hawk  (Female).  12.  Kingbird.  13.  Sparrow  Hawk.  14.  Meadow 
Lark,  larger  in  proportion  than  the  others. 


MARYLAND  YELLOW-THROAT  383 

fond  of  scale  insects  and  plant  lice,  and  is  something  of  a  fly 
catcher  as  well. 

It  is  a  little  over  five  inches  in  length.  The  adult  male  bird 
can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  presence  of  bright  yellow  patches 
on  the  rump,  on  top  of  the  head,  and  on  each  side  of  the  breast. 
The  general  colors  are  grayish  with  darker  stripes;  throat,  white; 
more  or  less  black  on  breast  and  lower  parts.  In  the  young  and 
in  the  adults,  in  late  fall,  the  colors  are  duller,  and  the  character- 
istic yellow  of  the  crown  and  rump  is  either  very  dim  or  absent 
(Fig.  382). 


Fio.  382. — Myrtle  or  yellow-rumped  warbler.     (After  Fuertes.) 

It  nests  in  evergreens  a  few  feet  above  the  ground.  The  eggs 
are  whitish  gray,  blotched  with  brown  or  blue. 

The  Chestnut-sided  Warbler  (Plate  4,  Fig.  17)  is  an  attrac- 
tive, insect-eating  bird,  typical  of  a  large  family  of  warblers. 
Colors:  Crown,  yellow;  sides  of  breast,  chestnut  in  male;  some 
greenish  yellow  in  the  black  of  the  upper  parts;  below,  white. 
The  length  is  about  five  inches.  It  appears  in  the  northern  states 
about  the  middle  of  May. 

Maryland  Yellow-Throat  (Plate  4,  Fig.  15).— This  beautiful 
warbler  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  of  the  family.  It  perhaps  is 
not  as  useful  as  many  others  because  of  its  somewhat  shy  habits 


384        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

and  the  environment  of  its  nest.  It  is,  nevertheless,  decidedly 
insectivorous.  Because  of  this  and  its  beauty  it  is  entitled  to  our 
friendship. 

The  male  has  a  jet-black  band  across  the  forehead  and  over 
the  cheeks.  The  remainder  of  the  upper  parts  and  tail  are  olive 
green.  The  throat  and  chest  are  bright  yellow.  The  nests  are 
frequently  on  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  speckled  white.  This 
species  is  found  throughout  the  United  States  east  of  the  great 
plains. 


FIG.  383. — American  redstart,  (1)  male,  (2)  female.     (After  Fuertes.) 

American  Redstart. — Fuertes's  fine  drawing  (Fig.  383)  well 
illustrates  this  beautiful  bird.  It  is  one  of  a  large  group  of  wood- 
warblers,  examples  of  which  are  given  in  this  chapter.  The  male 
is  striking  because  of  his  activity  and  brilliancy  of  coloring.  These 
make  him  an  object  to  catch  the  eye  of  even  an  indifferent  ob- 
server. As  if  conscious  of  his  beauty,  he  is  continually  spreading 
and  flirting  his  tail,  extending  his  wings,  and  making  short  flights 
from  the  trees,  seeking  insects,  much  after  the  manner  of  our 
common  fly-catchers.  The  female  is  much  duller  in  color,  greenish 


19 


18 


20 


L.    WOOD.    DEL. 

Plate  4. 


l!t'R.    ENCiRAVI 


SOME   USEFUL   BIRDS 


15.  Maryland  Yellow  Throat.  16.  Cedar  Waxwing,  or  "Cherry  Bird."  17.  Chestnut- 
sided  Warbler.  18.  Purple  Crackle;  Crow  Blackbird.  19.  Bluebird.  20.  Blackburnian 
Warbler.  21.  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak. 


CEDAR  WAXWING  OR  " CHERRY  BIRD"        385 

gray  on  head  and  back  and  yellowish  where  the  male  is  salmon. 
The  colors  of  male  are:  Breast,  head,  and  back  a  deep,  lustrous 
black;  long  wing-feathers  at  base  a  rich  salmon;  about  half  of  the 
outer  tail  feathers,  sides  of  breast,  and  body  beneath  wings  deep 
salmon. 

The  American  redstart,  like  other  warblers,  is  very  beneficial 
because  of  its  insect-eating  habits. 

Blackburnian  Warbler  (Plate  4,  Fig.  20).— A  beautiful  repre- 
sentative of  the  warbler  family  and  a  strictly  insectivorous  bird 
is  here  described.  Breeding  as  it  does  in  the  evergreen  woods, 
it  consumes  more  insects  there  than  it  does  in  the  neighborhood 
of  farms.  However,  even  the  warblers  that  pass  through  any 
latitude  in  spring  and  again  in  the  fall,  not  nesting  there,  are 
useful,  in  that  they  are  keen  hunters  of  insects  found  hi  our  trees 
at  that  time.  The  Blackburnian  warbler  winters  hi  the  tropics. 

It  is  about  five  and  a  quarter  niches  in  length.  The  male  is 
strikingly  colored,  as  indicated  hi  the  illustration.  The  back  is 
streaked  with  black  and  white,  and  the  deep  orange,  shown  hi  the 
figure,  extends  over  the  throat  and  breast.  The  under  parts  are 
tinged  with  the  same  color.  It  is  regarded  by  many  as  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  the  warblers. 

Cedar  Waxwing  or  "Cherry  Bird"  (Plate  4,  Fig.  16).— This 
beautiful  bird  is  about  seven  niches  long.  The  tips  of  the  second- 
ary feathers  hi  the  wings  and  frequently  the  tips  of  tail  feathers 
resemble  red  sealing  wax;  hence  the  above  name.  The  head  and 
upper  parts  are  a  warm  grayish  brown.  There  is  a  conspicuous 
crest.  A  jet  black  line  crosses  the  forehead  and  through  the  eyes. 
A  yellow  band  extends  across  the  tail  at  its  end.  The  bird  is 
yellowish  below. 

It  is  found  in  varying  abundance  over  the  United  States  and 
breeds  throughout  its  range.  The  nest  is  characteristic,  rather 
bulky,  but  of  loose  construction,  in  which  rootlets,  moss,  twigs 
and  lichens  may  appear.  It  is  built  in  fruit  trees  or  in  shade  trees 
from  six  to  fifteen  or  more  feet  above  the  ground.  The  eggs  have 
been  described  as  "putty  colored"  and  irregularly  spotted  with 
black  or  brownish  markings.  There  may  be  three,  four,  or  five 
in  a  nest. 

Food  Habits. — These  birds  are  fond  of  canker  worms  and  other 

caterpillars,  and  are  valuable  allies  in  any  orchard.     One  year  in 

August  the  writer  noted  the  fly-catching  habit  of  this  bird,  arid 

the  following  note-book  entry  was  made:    "For  almost  half 'an? 

25 


386        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

hour  we  watched  six  of  these  birds,  constantly  on  the  wing,  hover- 
ing over  a  slough  and  catching  quantities  of  insects.  They  seemed 
never  to  grow  tired,  but  flew  slowly  against  the  wind,  deviating 
now  a  little  to  this  side,  now  to  that,  until  they  reached  the  end 
of  the  slough.  Then  back  they  came  to  repeat  the  same  maneuver 
and  go  over  the  same  ground  again  and  again.  Occasionally  they 
uttered  the  characteristic  note  of  the  species,  but,  for  the  most 
part,  flew  silently.  During  the  time  they  did  not  once  rest." 
Only  nine  out  of  152  stomachs  of  this  bird,  forty  of  which  were 
taken  in  cherry  season,  contained  cultivated  cherries. 

Red-eyed  Vireo  (Plate  3,  Fig.  8).— Who  has  not  heard  and 
enjoyed  the  song  of  this  bird  emanating  from  shade  trees  along  a 
village  street  on  a  hot  day  in  summer?  It  is  heard  at  a  time  when 
other  birds  are  silent,  and  if  one  sees  the  songster  among  the  leaves, 
he  will  be  found  to  be  actively  searching  for  insects,  even  while 
giving  voice  to  his  song.  Over  ninety  per  cent  of  its  food  consists 
of  insects. 

The  nest  is  pensile  in  a  fork  thirty  or  forty  feet  above  the 
ground.  It  is  characteristic  in  its  structure,  containing  strips  of 
vines,  bark  of  trees,  and  frequently  pieces  of  paper.  The  eggs, 
three  or  four  in  number,  are  white,  with  the  larger  end  sparingly 
spotted. 

The  bird  is  about  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long.  The  top  of 
the  head  is  gray;  and  a  white  line  is  over  the  eye,  which  is  red. 
The  remainder  of  the  body  is  olive  colored,  except  the  under  parts, 
which  are  white. 

Northern  Shrike  or  Butcher  Bird. — A  misconception  regarding 
this  bird  prevails  among  many.  The  mistake  is  encouraged  by  its 
name,  and  perhaps  added  to,  unfortunately,  by  the  illustrations 
frequently  seen,  showing  the  bird  with  a  captured  sparrow.  It 
is  true  that  he  kills  sparrows  and  other  small  birds,  a  fact  evidently 
fully  appreciated  by  his  intended  victims,  since  a  panic  among 
them  is  caused  by  his  appearance.  But  he  atones  for  this  by 
killing  and  devouring  field  mice,  shrews,  and  injurious  insects. 
It  is  to  his  credit,  also,  that  he  is  a  persistent  enemy  of  the  English 
sparrow.  The  latter  bird  is  responsible  for  many  ills;  and  is  now 
recognized  as  one  means  of  dispersal  of  the  much  dreaded  San 
Jose  scale. 

The  great  northern  shrike  is  common  in  northern  fields  until 
late  fall,  sometimes  as  late  as  December.  He  is  recognized  by  his 
peculiar  flight,  close  to  the  ground,  by  his  size  and  coloration. 


ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK 


387 


He  is  about  ten  and  one-fourth  inches  long;  black,  gray  and 
white  in  color,  and  is  at  times  something  of  a  songster.  Among 
the  injurious  insects  captured  might  be  mentioned  grasshoppers 
and  various  caterpillars  (Fig.  384). 

Chipping  Sparrow  (Plate  2,  Fig.  6). — This  is  one  of  our  most 
common  garden  birds.  It  is  unobtrusive,  friendly,  useful,  and 
welcome;  and  is  easily  recognized  by  its  modest,  grayish  and 
brownish  colors  and  the  chestnut  or  bay  patch  on  top  of  the  head. 
Its  somewhat  monotonous  " chipping"  note  is  a  common  sound  in 
many  gardens  and  dooryards  in  this  country. 


FIG.  384. — Northern  shrike  or  butcher  bird  with  sparrow  as  prey.     (After  Fuertes.) 

It  eats  seeds  in  the  fall,  but  during  the  summer  it  helps  destroy 
various  insects,  including  caterpillars,  beetles,  plant  lice,  etc.  In 
June  it  is  claimed  that  ninety-three  per  cent  of  its  food  consists 
of  insects. 

The  chipping  sparrow  is  a  little  over  five  inches  long.  It  nests 
in  trees  or  vines  near  houses  or  in  gardens  or  orchards.  The  nest 
is  generally  lined  with  horsehair.  The  four  or  five  eggs  are  bluish, 
with  blackish  or  brownish  markings. 

Rose-breasted  Grosbeak  (Plate  4,  Fig.  21).— This  beautiful 
bird  and  excellent  songster  is  common  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  male  is  at  once  recognized  by  the  striking  black 


388        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

and  white  coloration,  and  by  the  beautiful  rose  coloring  of  the 
breast  and  under  sides  of  wings.  The  female  is  brownish  or  oliva- 
ceous, the  rose  on  the  male's  wings  being  replaced  by  yellow. 
As  the  name  indicates,  the  bill  is  strikingly  large  and,  even  without 
the  above  colors,  would  be  sufficient  to  distinguish  this  bird  from 
many  others. 

This  grosbeak  is  about  eight  inches  long.  It  nests  from  five 
to  fifteen  feet  or  more  from  the  ground.  The  four  or  five  eggs  are 
light  blue,  with  irregular  brownish  markings. 

Benefits. — The  species  migrates  to  Mexico  and  is  found  breed- 
ing as  far  north  as  southern  Canada.  Throughout  its  range  it  is 
a  help  to  the  agriculturist.  It  occasionally  eats  peas  and  a  little 
fruit,  but  consumes  an  enormous  number  of  potato  beetles,  as 
well  as  striped  cucumber  beetles.  It  is  reputed  as  attacking  scale 
insects,  and  the  writer  has  seen  it  foraging  for  grasshoppers.  Can- 
ker worms,  tent  caterpillars,  army  worms,  cut  worms,  chinch 
bugs,  and  others  are  known  to  be  included  in  its  dietary. 

Cardinal,  Red-Bird,  or  Virginia  Cardinal. — This  brilliant, 
crested  singer,  about  eight  inches  long,  is  common  in  parts  of  the 
South,  as  well  as  resident  in  the  middle  states.  It  sometimes 
surprises  us  by  being  seen  in  the  more  northern  latitudes.  Strangely 
enough,  it  has  been  observed  in  Iowa  and  Minnesota  in  winter. 
This  bird,  in  places,  is  known  as  the  cardinal  grosbeak.  It  has  the 
habits  of  others  of  the  grosbeak  group.  Two  or  three  broods  are 
produced  hi  the  South. 

It  is  frequently  seen  in  cages  and  makes  a  contented  captive. 
The  bright  red  of  the  body  of  the  male  contrasts  sharply  with  the 
deep  black  about  the  red  bill  and  on  the  throat.  The  female  is 
brownish,  inclined  to  ash,  with  indications  of  red,  which  color  is 
quite  pronounced  on  the  crest  and  on  wings  and  tail. 

The  Purple  Finch. —  Carpodacus  purpureus,  and  calif ornicus, 
its  Pacific  coast  variety,  are  worthy  of  discussion  in  this  treatise. 
The. males  have  brown  coats  washed  with  crimson.  They  arc 
beautiful  singers,  but  both  the  eastern  and  western  varieties  some- 
times cut  blossoms  from  fruit  trees,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  are 
particularly  troublesome  in  this  regard.  The  writer  has  seen  the 
ground  beneath  fruit  trees  in  Oregon  strewn  with  fallen  blossoms 
as  the  result  of  this  bird's  activity.  A.  R.  Woodcock,  of  Corvallis, 
Oregon,  has  this  to  say  of  this  bird  (Ore.  Bui.  68) : 

"Very  abundant  during  March,  April,  and  the  early  part  of 
May.  They  sometimes  become  a  nuisance  by  reason  of  their 


MEADOW  LARK  389 

picking  the  blossoms  from  the  cherry  trees  and,  to  some  extent, 
from  the  plum.  The  object  of  these  depredations  is  to  secure  the 
young  ovary  from  the  blossom.  In  plucking  the  latter,  it  is 
seized  by  the  calyx  tube,  wrenched  from  its  pedicle,  and  cut  into 
in  the  region  of  the  ovary.  The  bird  sometimes  secures  the  latter 
organ  and  sometimes  not.  Not  infrequently  trees  in  Corvallis 
are  fairly  stripped  by  these  birds.  During  the  summer  and  fall 
they  feed  upon  seeds  of  wild  mustard,  rape,  cabbage,  and  aspara- 
gus. In  winter  they  may  be  found  around  apple  orchards,  feeding 
on  the  seeds  of  apples  which  have  fallen  to  the  ground  and  decayed. 
In  the  spring  they  feed  extensively  on  the  seed  of  chickweed.  I 
believe  that  they  destroy  enough  of  the  seeds  of  noxious  cruciferse 
and  other  weedy  plants  to  more  than  make  recompense  for  the 
damage  they  do  to  the  fruit  trees.  They  nest  hi  June." 

The  Scarlet  Tanager. — This  beautiful  bird  and  excellent  song- 
ster is  found  not  only  in  parts  of  the  South,  but  is  fairly  common 
throughout  New  England  and  the  eastern  states,  ranging  west 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  The  author  has  found  it  common  in  the 
hemlock  woods  of  Maine,  among  the  deciduous  groves  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  in  the  agricultural  portions  of  Minnesota.  Its  food 
is  almost  entirely  insectivorous,  and  hence  it  is  entitled  to  recog- 
nition as  a  useful  bird.  The  male  is  scarlet,  with  black  wings  and 
tail;  the  female,  various  shades  of  yellowish  olive. 

Meadow  Lark  (Plate  3,  Fig.  14) . — The  meadow  lark  is  common 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  great  plains,  and  a  variety  extends  west- 
ward from  the  plains  to  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
both  prairie  land  and  fields  in  districts  more  or  less  wooded. 
While  not  a  fine  songster,  in  the  opinion  of  many  it  adds  much 
to  our  enjoyment. 

The  color  of  the  upper  parts  is  a  mingling  of  black,  whitish, 
and  chestnut.  It  is  darker  on  the  head;  and  a  light  streak  runs 
back  from  the  bill.  The  side  of  the  head  is  light,  showing  a  yellow 
streak  over  and  in  front  of  the  eye.  The  chin,  throat,  and  breast 
are  bright  yellow.  A  jet-black  collar  or  cravat  is  on  the  breast, 
hi  the  form  of  a  crescent.  All  but  the  central  tail  feathers  show 
considerable  white.  The  length  is  ten  to  eleven  inches.  It  nests 
upon  the  ground. 

Analyses  of  stomach  contents  give  interesting  results:  Two 
hundred  and  thirty-eight  stomachs  examined  contained  seventy- 
three  per  cent  animal  matter  and  twenty-seven  per  cent  vegetable, 
the  latter  being  found  in  the  winter.  The  animal  food  consisted 


390        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

of  insects  of  ground  species — beetles,  bugs,  grasshoppers,  cater- 
pillars, and  a  few  flies,  wasps,  and  spiders.  A  number  of  the 
stomachs  were  taken  from  birds  killed  when  the  ground  was  largely 
covered  with  snow,  but  still  contained  a  large  percentage  of  insects, 
Crickets  and  grasshoppers  constitute  twenty-nine  per  cent  of  the 
entire  year's  food,  and  sixty-nine  per  cent  of  the  food  in  August. 
About  one-third  of  the  beetles  were  predaceous  ground  beetles ; 
the  others  were  all  harmful  species.  In  May  caterpillars  constitute 
over  twenty-eight  per  cent  of  the  whole  food,  with  a  large  number 
of  cut  worms.  Grain  makes  up  fourteen  per  cent,  and  weed  and 
other  seeds  twelve  per  cent. 

The  Baltimore  Oriole. — This  beautiful  bird  is  found  in  most 
of  the  states  east  of  the  Rockies,  and  is,  as  a  rule,  a  welcome 
addition  to  our  bird  fauna,  a  flash  of  orange  in  the  green  of  a 
northern  summer.  However,  while  it  is  a  favorite  on  account  of 
its  beauty  and  somewhat  pleasing  song,  its  habits  are  not  always 
of  the  best  from  the  standpoint  of  the  gardener,  and,  like  the 
rose-breasted  grosbeak,  it  is  fond  of  peas,  and  frequently  tries  the 
patience  of  those  who  are  lovers  of  birds  by  its  depredations  in 
this  direction.  Methods  of  protecting  the  crop  are  given  on 
page  409.  As  opposed  to  its  injurious  habits,  it  eats  tent  cater- 
pillars and  other  hairy  caterpillars,  including  those  of  the  brown- 
tail  and  gypsy  moths,  as  well  as  canker  worms,  cucumber  beetles, 
and  grasshoppers.  The  male  is  bright  orange  of  various  shades 
and  black;  the  female's  colors  are  duller.  Its  pensile  nest  is 
frequently  seen  on  elm  trees. 

Bullock's  Oriole  takes  the  place  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

The  Orchard  Oriole  is  not  abundant  enough  to  be  of  special 
economic  importance  to  agriculture.  It  ranges  through  the  eastern 
United  States  into  the  South,  and  is  regarded  as  a  very  good  singer. 
The  male  is  black,  chestnut  below,  and  the  female  olive.  It  is 
smaller  than  the  Baltimore  oriole  and  with  the  same  general 
habits.  The  nest  is  not  so  strikingly  pensile  as  is  the  case  with 
the  Baltimore  oriole. 

The  Bobolink. — This  favorite  of  bird  lovers  is  the  subject  of 
many  a  song  and  poem.  It  is  a  common  and  welcome  summer 
resident  in  central  and  northern  states.  The  male  fills  the  fields 
with  drunken  melody,  while  his  more  modestly  colored  mate  is 
sitting  quietly  on  her  nest,  well  hidden  in  grass  or  clover.  So 
familiar  to  all  is  this  songster  that  with  figure  385  no  verbal 
description  is  necessary. 


RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRD 


391 


The  beauty  and  song  of  the  male  bird  are  but  transient  quali- 
ties; for  after  the  breeding  season  he  loses  his  fine  clothes,  becomes 
dull  olive  colored,  streaked  with  black,  like  the  female  and  young. 

Relation  to  Agriculture. — In  the  fall  these  birds  fly  in  flocks 
southward  to  wild  rice  marshes  and  cultivated  rice  and  grain  fields. 
They  go  as  far  as  South  America  for  winter.  At  night  one  fre- 
quently realizes  flocks  of  these  birds  are  passing  by  hearing  their 
metallic  "chink"  in  the  darkened  sky  above.  As  "reed  birds" 


FIG.  385.— Bobolink,  male  and  female.     (After  Fuertes.) 

or  "rice  birds,"  they  find  their  way  into  the  markets  of  the  East 
and  South,  fattened  by  voracious  feeding  in  the  rice  fields.  While 
in  the  North  they  eat  large  numbers  of  injurious  insects. 

Red- winged  Blackbird. — However  injurious  the  group  of  black- 
birds becomes  in  late  summer  and  fall,  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer  they  almost  or  quite  pay  for  their  depredations  by  con- 
suming large  numbers  of  injurious  insects.  The  red-winged  black- 
bird is  a  welcome  arrival  in  the  early  spring,  as  it  returns  from  its 
winter  migration.  Its  really  melodious  note  is  tuneful  comfort  to 


392        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

bird  lovers,  after  a  winter  devoid  of  feathered  singers.  The  posi- 
tion taken  by  the  bird  in  uttering  its  characteristic  note  or  notes 
discloses  to  advantage  its  scarlet  shoulders,  well  set  off  by  glossy 
black  wings,  body,  and  tail  (Fig.  386).  The  grayish-brown  female, 
streaked  with  black,  we  may  not  notice,  but  the  male  compels 
attention. 

Food  Habits. — The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  this  bird's  food  habits  and  finds 
about  seven-eighths  of  its  diet  consists  of  harmful  insects  and  weed 


FIG.  386. — Red-winged  blackbird.     (After  Fuertes.) 

seeds.  Locally,  when  in  large  flocks,  as  above  intimated,  this  and 
other  blackbirds  may  be  very  harmful.  A  resort  to  extreme 
measures  on  the  part  of  the  farmer  is  then  justified. 

Further  observations  of  experts  are  interesting.  For  example, 
in  the  case  of  the  red-winged  blackbird,  in  1083  stomachs  examined, 
weed  seeds  comprised  fifty-four  per  cent  of  the  contents,  grain, 
thirteen  per  cent,  grasshoppers  (in  August),  seventeen  per  cent, 
caterpillars,  twenty  per  cent  in  March,  and  beetles,  ten  per  cent. 
In  138  stomachs  of  the  yellow-headed  blackbird  insects  comprised 


WHIPPOORWILL  AND  NIGHT  HAWK  393 

thirty-three  per  cent  of  the  stomach  contents,  weed  seeds,  twenty- 
eight  per  cent,  grain,  thirty-eight  per  cent. 

Purple  Grackle  or  Crow  Blackbird  (Plate  4,  Fig.  18)  eats  white 
grubs,  grasshoppers,  and  other  insects,  including  army  worms; 
but,  like  other  blackbirds,  it  is  capable  of  doing  damage  in  grain 
fields  when  present  in  large  flocks.  It  is  at  such  times  that  the 
farmer  is  justified  in  protecting  his  crops  by  the  judicious  use  of 
the  shotgun.  However,  the  bird  should  not  be  classified  as  an 
enemy  to  the  farmer,  because  it  is  also  known  to  do  much  good, 
as  indicated  above. 

The  crow  blackbird  is  twelve  inches  long.  It  builds  a  coarse 
nest  of  grass  and  mud,  frequently  in  evergreens,  or  even  in  niches 
in  the  cornices  of  buildings. 

King  Bird. — This  is  the  policeman  of  our  garden  and  orchard, 
bravely  attacking  large  hawks  and  crows  which  might  be  disposed 
to  mischief.  It  is  a  typical  fly  catcher  and  consumes  enormous 
numbers  of  bisects,  thus  deserving  our  protection  at  all  times. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  it  occasionally  attacks  honey  bees,  a 
goodly  proportion  of  which  appear  to  be  drones.  Examination 
of  634  stomachs  shows  only  61  bees  in  22  stomachs;  of  these,  51 
were  drones.  On  the  other  hand,  it  devours  robber  flies  which 
catch  and  destroy  honey  bees. 

Its  length  is  eight  and  one-half  inches.  The  upper  parts  are 
dark  gray.  It  is  almost  black  on  the  head,  with  a  concealed  flame- 
colored  crest  on  the  head.  Its  under  parts  are  whitish. 

Whippoorwill  and  Night  Hawk. — These  two  birds  are  some- 
times confused  by  the  uninitiated,  but  they  are  perfectly  distinct 
species.  The  coloring  and  markings  of  the  two  birds  also  serve 
to  distinguish  them.  The  whippoorwilPs  colors  partake  of  the 
browns,  while  the  night  hawk  is  grayish.  The  tail  of  the  former  has 
the  three  outer  feathers  white  for  about  two-thirds  of  their  length. 
The  end  of  the  tail  is  rounding.  The  night  hawk  has  a  conspicuous 
white  patch  on  each  wing,  and  its  tail  is  forked.  The  whippoor- 
will  feeds  largely  on  moths  and  beetles;  the  night  hawk  on  May 
flies,  gnats,  dragon  flies,  grasshoppers. 

Both  are  insect-eaters. 

The  Whippoorwill  (Fig.  387)  is  not  often  seen,  and  is  not  very 
well  known.  It  is  a  bird  of  the  woods.  Unless  disturbed  it  flies 
only  by  night.  It  is  characterized  by  its  peculiar  note,  oft-repeated : 
"  Whip-poor-will!  Whip-poor-will!  Whip-poor-will!"  with  a 
"cluck"  or  " chuck"  before  each  call,  audible  to  one  close  at  hand. 


394        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

This  song,  quite  forceful  and  penetrating,  is  heard  in  the  first  part 
of  the  night  and  again  just  before  dawn.  In  coloration  the  bird 
harmonizes  closely  with  the  wood  colors.  When  flushed,  it  dis- 
appears with  absolutely  noiseless  flight. 

The  whippoorwill's  eggs,  two  in  number,  are  laid  on  the  ground 
or  on  a  log  or  stump  in  the  woods,  protected  by  no  nest. 

The  Night  Hawk,  on  the  other  hand  (Fig.  388),  is  markedly  a 
bird  of  the  open.  It  is  frequently  seen  in  flight  in  the  afternoon 
and  early  in  the  evening,  high  in  the  air,  uttering  at  frequent 
intervals  its  rather  harsh  cry.  Occasionally,  on  half-closed  wings, 
it  darts  down  to  the  earth  with  a  booming  sound,  made,  it  is 
claimed,  by  the  rush  of  air  through  his  long  wing  feathers. 


Flo.  387.— Whippoorwill.     (After  Fuertes.) 

The  two  eggs  of  the  night  hawk  are  laid  on  the  ground  or  in 
the  fields,  or  even  on  a  flat  rock,  with  no  semblance  of  a  nest. 
Occasionally  they  are  found  on  flat  roofs  of  buildings  in  cities. 

The  Belted  Kingfisher  is  naturally  a  lover  of  wood-bordered 
streams  and  ponds.  The  noisy  rattle  of  this  bird  is  a  fit  accom- 
paniment to  the  sound  of  running  water,  and  it  is  here  that  it 
takes  frequent  toll  of  fish  which  might  otherwise  have  lived  to 
fill  the  angler's  creel.  Fish  in  ponds  and  streams,  therefore,  suffer 
as  a  result  of  its  rapacious  appetite,  but  its  depredations  become 
of  marked  importance  when  it  habitually  takes  its  food  from  ponds 
or  streams  of  those  who  raise  trout  on  a  commercial  scale.  Fre- 
quently the  shotgun  is  used  by  the  fish  breeder  in  defense  of  his 
fish.  Or,  taking  advantage  of  the  bird's  habit  of  frequenting  a 


YELLOW-BILLED  CUCKOO  395 

perch  over  the  water,  whence  it  can  see  its  prey  below  the  surface, 
a  steel  trap  is  placed  on  the  top  of  an  upright  pole  planted  in  the 
pond  and  the  marauder  is  captured  therein. 

Its  white  eggs  are  placed  at  the  end  of  a  long  burrow  in  some 
bank  near  the  water.  The  accompanying  virile  picture  (Fig. 
389)  by  Fuertes,  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  the  appearance  of  this 
vivacious,  noisy,  and  at  times,  injurious  bird.  It  should  be  in- 
cluded under  the  head  of  "Birds  of  doubtful  utility." 

Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  (Plate  3,  Fig.  7).— The  cuckoo  is  a  shy 
bird.  Its  back  and  long  tail  are  a  fashionable  brown.  The  under 
parts  are  white.  The  lower  half  of  the  bill  is  yellow,  except  at 


ta&'lft-iaSiAlil • 

FIG.   388. — Night  hawk.     (From  Brehm.) 

the  tip.  It  constructs  a  loose  nest  of  twigs  and  lays  therein  three, 
four,  or  five  pale  green  eggs,  unmarked.  This  bird  is  generally 
silent,  but  at  times  gives  utterance  to  a  note  repeated  in  such  a 
way  that  it  sounds  like  some  one  calling  the  cows.  Because  this 
is  heard  sometimes  in  lowering  weather  preceding  rain,  the  bird 
is  called  by  many  "rain  crow." 

It  is  without  doubt  one  of  our  most  useful  birds  and  one  of  the 
few  which  will  eat  hairy  caterpillars,  such  as  tent  caterpillars, 
and  fall  web  worms.  Henshaw  (U.  S.  Farmers'  Bui.  513)  reports 
that  one  stomach  which  was  examined  contained  two  hundred 
and  fifty  tent  caterpillars;  another,  two  hundred  and  seventeen 
fall  web  worms. 


396       RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Downy  Woodpecker  (Plate  3,  Fig.  9). — This  woodpecker  is  a 
true  benefactor,  in  that  its  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  inju- 
rious insects.  It  is  with  us  both  winter  and  summer.  It  is  the 
smallest  of  our  woodpeckers,  being  only  six  and  four-fifths  inches 
long.  It  is  black  above,  but  has  a  scarlet  band  on  the  back  of  the 
neck,  and  has  white  on  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  under  parts 
are  white.  The  central  feathers  of  the  tail  are  black,  the  outer 
ones  white,  with  black  markings.  The  wings  are  black,  spotted 


FIG.   389.— Belted  kingfisher.     (After  Fuertes.) 

with  white.     The  female  lacks  the  scarlet  patch  on  the  back  of 
the  neck.    It  nests  in  holes  in  trees. 

This  bird  is  often  seen  in  winter  in  company  with  nut-hatches, 
chickadees,  and  brown  creepers.  What  little  vegetable  food  it 
eats  consists  of  seeds  of  poison  ivy,  sumach  and  similar  shrubs. 
Seventeen  examined  specimens  had  eaten  forty  insect  larvae, 
twenty  wood-boring  grubs,  three  caterpillars,  seven  ants,  four 
beetles,  a  chrysalid,  one  hundred  and  ten  small  bugs,  a  spider, 


YELLOW-BELLIED  SAPSUCKER 


397 


a  few  acorns,  small  seeds,  and  a  little  woody  fiber,  apparently 
taken  by  accident  with  the  grubs.  Three-fourths  of  the  food  of 
one  hundred  and  forty  specimens  examined  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  consisted  of  insects.  Nearly  one-fourth 
consisted  of  ants,  chiefly  those  which  were  caring  for  plant  lice 
or  burrowing  in  wood  (Fig.  390,  and  also  Plate  3,  Fig.  9). 


FIG.  390. — Downy  woodpecker. 

This  common  woodpecker,  which  is  one  of  our  most  useful  birds, 
is  only  seven  inches  in  length  and  has  a  scarlet  band  on  the  back 
of  the  head  of  the  male,  not  in  the  crown.  On  account  of  its  size 
and  difference  of  coloration,  it  need  not  be  confused  with  the 
other  species  under  discussion. 

Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker. — This  is  the  only  bad  woodpecker 
we  have,  but  it  has  some  champions.  It  preys  upon  birch,  maple, 


398        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

apple,  mountain  ash,  evergreens,  and  other  trees,  sucking  the  sap, 
of  which  it  appears  to  be  very  fond,  and  leaving  rows  of  holes 
about  the  trunk.  Some  of  the  cambium  or  inner  layer  of  the  bark 
seems  to  be  eaten  also.  While  this  bird  eats  a  few  insects,  the 
damage  it  does  in  causing  trees  to  bleed  far  outweighs,  we  believe, 
the  benefits  derived  from  its  presence.  In  striking  contrast  with 


FIG.  391. — Yellow-bellied  sapsucker.     (After  Fuertes.) 

other  birds  whose  tongues  are  adapted  for  extracting  borers  from 
infested  trees,  the  tongue  of  this  species  has  a  somewhat  "  brush- 
like"  tip.  It  can  not  be  protruded  to  any  extent,  and  is  thus 
suited  to  an  entirely  different  diet  from  that  of  other  members 
of  the  same  family.  The  rows  of  holes  made  by  this  bird  upon 
tree-trunks  may  result  in  girdling  the  tree. 


MARSH  HAWK  399 

The  bird  is  about  eight  and  one-half  inches  long.  The  adult 
male  has  crown  and  throat  red,  breast  black,  and  belly  a  shade 
of  yellow.  The  female  has  no  red  on  the  throat,  and  the  red  color 
of  the  crown  is  sometimes  replaced  by  black  (Fig.  391). 

Hawks  and  Owls. — Rank  injustice  has  been  done  this  group  of 
birds.  We  unhesitatingly  place  the  sharp-shinned  hawk,  Cooper's 
hawk,  and  the  goshawk  as  chief  marauders  against  poultry  and 
small  birds  hi  the  category  of  bad  birds;  but  a  large  number  of 
hawks  and  owls  are  useful.  They  prey  upon  gophers,  field  mice, 
rabbits,  and  other  animals  inimical  to  the  interests  of  the  forest, 
the  poultryman,  orchardist,  and  gardener.  The  poultryman, 
particularly  if  living  near  timber,  will  occasionally  lose  poultry  on 
.account  of  the  presence  of  hawks,  but  practically  never  on  account 
of  the  three  or  four  birds  of  prey  which  we  specifically  mention 
as  useful. 

From  time  immemorial  the  farmer's  boy  has  felt  justified  in 
shooting  every  hawk  and  every  owl  he  meets  under  the  impression 
that  he  is  doing  agriculture  a  good  turn  thereby.  Whenever  he 
can  bring  down  a  crow  or  shoot  into  a  bunch  of  blackbirds  he  feels 
an  honest  conviction  that  his  action  will  be  approved  at  home; 
hence  he  returns  triumphant.  He  proudly  displays  his  dead  crow 
or  hawk  or  owl  as  he 'walks  the  village  street;  while  partridge, 
quail,  or  "  chicken/'  shot  out  of  season,  is  packed  snugly  away 
under  his  hunting  coat. 

Marsh  Hawk  (Plate  3,  Fig.  11). — The  male  and  female  are 
quite  different,  both  in  size  and  color.  The  adult  male  is  nineteen 
inches  long.  It  is  grayish  above,  the  tail  being  barred  with  blackish. 
The  feathers  above  at  the  base  of  the  tail  (upper  tail  coverts)  are 
conspicuously  white.  The  breast  is  gray,  fading  into  white  on  the 
belly,  where  brownish  markings  are  found.  The  adult  female  is 
twenty-two  inches  long.  She  is  dark  brown  above,  and  is  marked 
on  the  head  and  neck  with  reddish  brown.  The  upper  tail  coverts, 
as  in  male,  are  conspicuously  white.  The  tail  is  darker  brown, 
barred  with  reddish  brown.  The  breast  is  buff;  the  color  fading 
on  the  belly.  Nests  are  made  on  the  ground  in  marshes. 

Food. — This  is  eminently  a  bird  of  the  meadows  and  prairies, 
and  is  often  seen  skimming  over  the  top  of  the  marsh  grass,  hunting 
its  food,  at  which  time  the  white  of  the  upper  tail  coverts  is  con- 
spicuous. It  eats  field  mice,  squirrels,  rabbits,  grasshoppers,  frogs, 
and  reptiles.  Occasionally  small  birds  or  poultry  are  taken,  but  not 
often.  The  writer  regards  it  as  a  useful  bird  to  the  agriculturist. 


400       RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

Out  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  stomachs  examined  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  seven  contained  poultry 
or  game  birds,  thirty-four  contained  other  birds,  fifty-seven  con- 
tained mice,  twenty-two  contained  other  mammals;  seven  con- 
tained reptiles;  two  contained  frogs;  fourteen  contained  insects, 
the  contents  of  one  were  undetermined,  and  eight  were  empty. 


V 


FIG.   392.— Great  horned  owl.     (After  Fuertes.) 

Dr.  H.  B.  Warren  examined  fourteen  stomachs  with  the  following 
results:  Seven  had  only  field  mice  in  their  stomachs;  three,  frogs; 
two,  small  birds  (warblers) ;  one,  a  few  feathers,  apparently  of  a 
sparrow,  and  fragments  of  insects;  one,  a  large  number  of  grass- 
hoppers, with  a  small  quantity  of  hair,  evidently  of  a  young  rabbit. 
Sparrow  Hawk  (Plate  3,  Fig.  13).— This  is  our  smallest  and 
most  beautiful  hawk.  It  is  common  in  fields  and  along  roadsides 


SPARROW  HAWK 


401 


in  the  late  summer  and  fall,  at  which  time  it  consumes  large 
numbers  of  grasshoppers.  It  also  eats  caterpillars,  other  insects, 
and  spiders.  At  least  one-fourth  of  its  food  consists  of  field  mice, 
shrews,  and  field-dwelling  house  mice.  It  occasionally  preys  upon 
young  birds,  but  this  is  not  a  common  trait  of  this  species.  A 
Biological  Survey  bulletin  states:  "Out  of  four  hundred  and  ten 
stomachs  examined,  three  hundred  and  fourteen  were  found  to 


FIG.  393. — Virginia  quail  or  hob  ,\tiu        (After  Fuertes.) 

contain  insects,  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine,  small  mammals,  and 
seventy,  small  birds."  We  unhesitatingly  class  this  species  with 
our  useful  birds.  It  is  found  throughout  the  United  States,  breed- 
ing wherever  it  is  a  summer  resident. 

It  is  about  ten  inches  long.    The  back  of  the  male  is  brownish 

red  or  rufous,  with  black  bars.     The  tail  is  rufous,  with  a  black 

band  near  the  end;  the  extreme  end  is  white.    The  head  is  bluish, 

with  brown  shadings.     The  under  parts  are  spotted  with  black. 

26 


402       RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

A  hole  in  a  tree  is  utilized  as  a  nest.     The  eggs  are  whitish  or 
creamy,  three  to  seven  in  number. 

Great  Horned  Owl. — This  striking  bird,  reaching  the  northern 
states  sometimes  as  early  as  February,  is  quite  common  in  wooded 
sections.  Rabbits,  gophers,  muskrats,  field  mice,  and  other  night- 
prowling  animals  represent  a  large  share  of  the  diet  of  this  bird. 
Poultry,  too,  are  attacked  if  farmers  allow  their  turkeys  and 
chickens  to  roost  in  tops  of  trees,  on  sheds,  or  other  exposed  places. 
Even  skunks  (Fig.  392)  are  highly  prized  by  them  for  food.  In 
fact,  when  caught,  they  are  frequently  scented  with  skunk  odor. 
With  the  exception  of  the  skunk,  which  is  ordinarily  a  useful 

citizen,  the  other  mammals 
mentioned  must  be  regarded 
as  injurious — most  of  them  de- 
cidedly so.  Hence  this  owl  is, 
to  a  large  degree,  a  benefactor. 
The  Virginia  Quail  or  Bob 
White  is  holding  its  own  fairly 
well  in  many  northern  states 
in  spite  of  severe  winters,  and 
is  pushing  its  way  farther 
north  when  conditions  are 
favorable.  This  bird  is  such 
a  good  friend  of  the  agricul- 
turist that  it  deserves  protec- 
tion. Its  fine  qualities  as  a 
ta,ble  bird  make  it  an  object 

I?  IG.  394.— Mourning  dove.     (After  Fuertes.)  ,  J 

of    pursuit    on    the    part    of 

hunters.  Potato  bugs  and  even  chinch  bugs  have  been  found  in  its 
crop,  and  grasshoppers,  as  well  as  many  other  varieties  of  injurious 
insects,  compose  a  large  proportion  of  its  bill  of  fare  (Fig.  393). 
The  Mourning  Dove. — This  dove  is  common  in  middle  and 
northern  states.  It  was  at  one  time  included  in  our  list  of  game 
birds,  with  a  regular  open  season.  It  is  now  appreciated  as  a 
somewhat  useful  or  at  least  a  harmless  bird  (Fig.  394).  U.  S. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  513  reports  the  finding  in  one  stomach  of  7500 
seeds  of  yellow  wood  sorrel.  In  another  Were  found  6400  seeds 
of  foxtail.  In  a  third  there  were  2600  seeds  of  slender  paspalum, 
4820  seeds  of  orange  hawkweed,  950  of  hairy  vervain,  120  of 
Carolina  cranesbill,  56  of  yellow  wood  sorrel,  620  of  panic  grass, 
and  40  miscellaneous  weed  seeds. 


THE  YELLOW  HAMMER  403 

The  Golden  Plover  was  formerly  abundant  in  the  United  States, 
but  it  is  now  a  rare  bird.  It  is  occasionally  seen  in  some  of  the 
northern  states  during  the  migrations  (Fig.  395).  At  such  times 
its  food  consists  chiefly  of  grasshoppers  and  other  insects.  It  is 
included  here  as  representing  a  group  useful  to  the  agriculturist. 
Another  example  is  the  field  or  upland  plover,  which  is  also  a 
vanishing  bird. 

The  Barn  Swallow  (Fig.  396),  which  captures,  while  on  the 
wing,  moths,  flies,  beetles,  and  grasshoppers,  is  a  charming  addi- 
tion to  any  farm  scene.  House  bed-bugs,  contrary  to  a  very  com- 
mon belief,  are  not  found  in  swallows'  nests. 

The  Purple  Martin  is  an  excellent  addition  to  any  farm.  It 
should  be  provided  with  a  martin  house  and  its  presence  encour- 


FIG.  395.— Golden  plover.      (After   Fuertes.) 

aged.  This  bird  wages  relentless  war  upon  hawks  and  crows,  and 
constitutes,  therefore,  a  guard  for  poultry  and  small  birds. 

The  Song  Sparrow,  so  dear  to  us  all,  deserves  a  prominent 
place  on  our  list.  It  is  not  only  friendly  and  attractive  because 
of  its  song,  and  from  the  fact  that  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  bird 
arrivals  from  the  South,  but  it  consumes  a  large  amount  of  weed 
seeds  and  many  insects. 

The  Yellow  Hammer,  Flicker,  or  Golden-winged  Woodpecker 
(Fig.  397),  while  a  useful  bird,  is  not  as  useful  as  many  other 
woodpeckers.  It  obtains  a  share  of  its  food  from  the  ground. 
That  is,  it  is  very  fond  of  p.nts  and  is  quite  likely  to  be  discovered 
dining  on  them  upon  the  lawn.  It  eats  wood-boring  grubs  to 
some  extent,  but  is  not  as  industrious  in  that  direction  as  many 


404       RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

of  our  other  woodpeckers.  It  occasionally  takes  a  little  fruit, 
and  is  reported  to  eat  grain,  though  very  rarely.  On  the  whole, 
it  is  a  useful  bird,  and  we  are  attached  to  it  because  we  associate 
its  characteristic  call  with  the  promising  days  of  early  spring, 
before  the  leaves  appear  on  the  trees. 

The  Black  Tern  is  found  abundantly  about  prairie  sloughs  in 


Fia.   396. — Barn  swallow.     (U.  S.  Biol.  Survey.) 

the  West.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  representative  of  the  group  in 
the  upper  Mississippi  Valley.  The  tern  is  a  good  friend  of  the 
farmer,  for  when  the  sloughs  are  dry,  and  even  before,  they  con- 
sume large  numbers  of  grasshoppers.  We  illustrate  the  common 
tern  in  figure  398. 

Franklin's  Rosy  Gull  is  a  bird  found  in  prairie  sections  of  the 
West.    It  is  a  voracious  eater  of  grasshoppers. 


THE  EUROPEAN  SPARROW 


405 


Birds  of  Doubtful  Utility. — We  have  already  mentioned  the 
cat-bird,  whose  usefulness  is  sometimes  questioned.  The  crow 
and  various  blackbirds  are  placed  here,  for  they  will,  at  times, 
call  for  radical  treatment.  We  have  seen  both  crows  and  black- 
birds hunting  grasshoppers  in  the  stubble  fields,  and  both  are 
known  to  eat  other  insects.  But  their  food  habits  are  such  as  to 
make  their  constant  protection  undesirable.  When  necessary,  the 
farmer  should  not  hesitate  to  resort  to  extreme  measures  to  pro- 
tect his  crop.  Crows,  it  should  be  noted,  are  fond  of  field  mice. 


FIG.   397. — Flicker,  golden-winged  woodpecker,  or  yellow-hammer.      (U.  S.   Biol.  Survey.) 

Like  the  crow,  our  blue  jay  sometimes  robs  birds'  nests  of  both 
eggs  and  young  birds.  However,  since  he  is  something  of  an 
insect  eater  and  only  occasionally  resorts  to  corn  or  other  grain, 
it  would  be  hardly  just  to  make  war  upon  him.  The  belted  king- 
fisher, as  before  intimated,  certainly  belongs  in  the  category  of 
birds  of  doubtful  utility. 

The  European  Sparrow  is  a  great  nuisance,  as  we  all  know. 
From  the  farmer's  standpoint,  he  is  an  undesirable  citizen  in  every 


406        RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

way.  Some  Englishmen  have  objected  to  this  bird  being  referred 
to  as  "English  sparrow ";  hence  the  above  more  correct  appella- 
tion. This  introduced  pest  probably  can  not  be  exterminated, 
but  its  numbers  about  a  dwelling,  and  even  in  towns,  may  be 
materially  lessened. 

Trapping. — A  wire  " sparrow  trap"  now  on  the  market  is 
used  with  some  success,  occasionally  catching  ten  or  eleven  birds 
in  one  morning.  They  finally  learn  to  avoid  this  trap,  and  con- 
sequently its  location  has  to  be  changed.  Young  birds,  as  one 
would  expect,  are  more  susceptible  to  trapping  than  old  birds. 

Shooting. — Cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  neighbors  in  shoot- 
ing these  birds  and  destroying  their  nests,  in  one  locality,  met 


FIG.  398. — The  common  tern.      (After  Fuertes.) 

with  such  success  that  an  offer  of  fifty  dollars  by  a  citizen  for  a 
specimen  captured  or  shot  within  the  city  limits  was  not  claimed. 
Repeated  destruction  of  their  nests  and  shooting  them  as  they 
seek  the  cornices  of  a  dwelling  for  roosting  eventually  cause  them 
to  leave. 

In  the  country,  where  one  can  use  a  shotgun,  these  birds  may 
be  " baited"  in  winter  by  feeding  wheat  placed  on  the  ground  in 
a  line  for  several  mornings;  then  rake  the  feeding  birds  with  a 
charge  of  shot. 

Poisoning. — Poisoned  wheat  or  cornmeal  can  be  used.  A 
little  powdered  strychnine  is  added  to  the  grain  in  a  shallow  box. 
Put  the  box  on  the  end  of  a  pole  five  or  six  feet  from  the  ground. 
This  will  prevent  poultry  from  being  poisoned.  It  is  worthy  of 


OBSERVATIONS  407 

note  that  several  sparrows  so  poisoned  have  been  fed  to  a  house 
cat  with  no  bad  results. 

The  above  recommendations  may  appear  rather  harsh  to  bird 
lovers,  yet  the  writer,  in  common  with  many  others,  is  so  convinced 
that  the  presence  of  this  sparrow  is  a  menace  to  other  birds  that 
he  does  not  hesitate  to  urge  its  destruction. 

How  to  Study  Birds. — For  one  disposed  to  make  a  study  of 
birds,  a  few  reliable  and  helpful  books,  referred  to  at  the  end  of 
this  chapter,  a  pair  of  inexpensive  field  glasses,  a  note-book,  and 
a  love  of  field  and  wood  to  invite  to  the  haunts  of  birds,  are  all 
that  is  necessary.  A  camera,  if  one  should  have  the  time  and 
inclination  toward  that  phase  of  the  work,  will  add  to  the  interest. 
Observation  sheets  may  be  obtained  from  the  Bureau  of  Biological 
Survey  at  Washington;  and  this  bureau  is  always  glad  to  receive 
notes  on  bird  migration  and  kindred  phenomena. 

The  writer,  as  a  result  of  several  years'  observation,  con- 
structed a  table  for  reference,  something  as  follows:  Twelve 
spaces,  separated  from  each  other  by  heavy  lines,  are  made  on 
cards  of  suitable  size  for  the  pocket.  These  spaces  represent  the 
months.  An  additional  wider  space  is  ruled  on  the  left  for  birds' 
names.  Opposite  the  name  of  each  bird  studied  is  entered  a  mark 
denoting  whether  the  bird  was  common,  fairly  common,  rare,  or 
a  summer  resident,  a  permanent  resident,  or  an  occasional  visitor. 
A  line  is  drawn  through  the  month  spaces  so  as  to  show  the  date 
of  its  arrival  and  departure.  For  instance,  opposite  the  name  of 
robin  appeared  a  long,  heavy  dash  running  from  the  latter  part 
of  the  space  devoted  to  March,  through  the  space  devoted  to  the 
intervening  months,  and  into  November  far  enough  to  indicate 
approximately  the  date  of  departure  of  the  robins.  A  bird  which 
is  rare  would  have  a  lineal  mark  of  some  sort,  possibly  a  broken 
line.  Bird  clubs,  such  as  the  national  and  state  Audubon  societies, 
print  forms  suitable  for  bird  notes. 

These  cards  or  notes  may  be  inclosed  in  a  leather-covered  case 
and  carried  in  the  pocket,  forming  a  ready  reference  for  use  on  the 
field  trips.  On  starting  into  the  field  with  a  card  previously  made, 
one  could  tell  at  a  glance  what  birds  might  be  found.  New  and 
unrecorded  observations  would  occasionally  call  for  changes  on 
cards. 

Observations  should  be  made  of  a  number  of  things:  (1)  Food 
habits  during  the  nesting  season.  (2)  Food  at  other  times.  (3) 
When  nesting  begins.  (4)  Kind  and  location  of  nests.  (5)  Dates 


408       RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

of  nesting,  incubation,  brooding.  (6)  Season  of  flocking,  if  at  all. 
(7)  Songs  at  different  seasons.  (8)  Enemies  and  tragedies.  (9) 
Habits  of  flight.  (10)  Migration.  (11)  Variations  in  color  due 
to  age  and  season.  (12)  Differences  in  marking  due  to  sex.  (13) 
Bird  census  for  different  kinds  in  the  community.  (14)  Habits 
with  reference  to  proximity  of  water.  (15)  Other  points. 

How  to  Attract  Birds. — Allowing  that  birds  deserve  our  pro- 
tection, one  naturally  asks,  What  can  we  do  to  draw  them  about 
us?  Trees  and  shrubbery,  of  course,  attract  them.  U.  S.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  621  gives  a  list  of  about  eighty  trees  or  shrubs  whose  fruit 
affords  food  to  birds.  Some  of  these  should  be  on  every  one's 
grounds. 

The  establishment  of  bird  refuges  and  game  preserves  is  doing 
much  to  conserve  bird  life. 

The  artistic  bird  houses  now  on  the  market  are  a  help  in  this 
direction.  These  are  constructed  not  only  for  bluebirds,  wrens,  and 
martins,  but  also  for  nut-hatches,  woodpeckers,  and  other  species. 
An  ingenious  boy  or  man  can  easily  construct  houses  which  answer 
the  requirements  very  well  and  at  but  little  expense. 

Bird  Houses. — In  passing,  it  may  be  well  to  state  a  few  very 
necessary  facts  about  bird  houses  known  to  many,  but  not  all. 
Wren  houses  should  be  free  from  the  preceding  year's  litter  before 
one  can  expect  them  to  attract  newcomers.  If  the  entrance  to  a 
wren  house  is  the  size  of  a  silver  quarter,  it  will  admit  the  wren 
but  keep  out  the  European  or  English  sparrow.  Martin  houses 
should  be  placed  on  high  poles  or  in  conspicuous  places  where  the 
martins  can  see  them,  not  too  near  to  trees.  A  weather-worn 
martin  house  is  apparently  more  attractive  to  these  birds  than  a 
newly  painted  domicile. 

The  Brush  Hill  Bird  Club,  of  Milton,  Mass.,  has  published  the 
following  directions  relative  to  the  construction  of  bird  houses: 

"Bluebirds  and  Tree  Swallow. — Box,  12  X  6  X  5  inches;  size 
of  hole,  1J/2  inches;  height  from  ground,  8  to  30  feet. 

"Wrens  and  Chickadees. — Box,  12  X  5  X  4  inches;  size  of  hole, 
\Y±  inches;  height,  6  to  25  feet. 

"Flickers—Box,  15  X  10  X  8  inches;  hole,  3  to  3^  inches; 
height,  6  to  25  feet. 

"Screech  Owl— Box,  15  X  12  X  12  inches;  hole,  3  to  3^ 
inches;  height,  15  feet. 

"Martin  House  Colony.— Holes,  2  inches;  pole,  16  to  20  feet 
high  in  open  spot  where  martins  can  easily  see  it. 


PROTECTION  OF  GARDEN  TRUCK  409 

11  The  Boxes. — The  cover  should  be  detachable,  so  that  the  box 
can  be  cleaned  easily. 

"A  sloping  top  with  an  overhang  is  a  protection  to  the  young 
birds  from  both  sun  and  rain. 

"  Squirrels  may  be  kept  out  of  the  boxes  by  putting  a  piece 
of  zinc  around  the  hole  so  that  they  cannot  enlarge  it  by  gnawing. 

"The  box  should  be  ventilated. 

"  Poles  are  preferable  to  trees  for  erecting  houses,  as  they 
afford  protection  from  both  cats  and  squirrels. 

"Wood  is  the  best  material.  Tin  or  earthen  boxes  should  be 
placed  in  the  shade." 

Put  a  six-inch  shelf  of  zinc  around  the  pole  to  help  keep  off 
cats  and  squirrels. 

Feeding  Birds. — In  summer  birds  generally  obtain  enough  food 
without  special  help  from  man,  but  in  winter,  when  the  natural 
food  is  scarce  or  covered  with  snow,  any  provision  in  this  direction 
which  we  may  offer  is  appreciated.  Shrubs,  some  of  which  have 
fruit  on  their  branches  all  winter,  have  been  referred  to  before. 
In  addition,  one  may  give  them  suet,  or  meat,  or  grain.  Recep- 
tacles may  be  constructed  or  purchased  to  hold  these  somewhat 
differing  foods  and  protect  them  from  the  weather.  The  writer 
has  tacked  lumps  of  suet  to  tree  trunks  with  nails  and  has  been 
gratified,  in  snowy  weather,  at  seeing  numbers  of  chickadees, 
nut-hatches,  brown  creepers,  downy  woodpeckers,  and  bluejays 
avail  themselves  of  food  thus  offered.  There  is  a  better  way  of 
feeding  suet  by  enclosing  it  in  a  wire  basket  and  thus  avoiding 
waste. 

Crops  Attacked  by  Birds. — Since  man,  in  clearing  and  culti- 
vating the  land,  has  removed  much  of  the  natural  vegetable  food 
of  birds,  and  has  frequently  replaced  it  with  equally  appetizing 
domestic  fruit  and  vegetables,  it  is  very  natural  that  the  birds 
should  turn  to  the  cultivated  fruit  apparently  placed  within 
reach  for  their  special  benefit.  The  protection  of  crops  from  the 
attack  of  birds,  therefore,  becomes  at  times  a  serious  problem 
to  the  gardener  or  orchardist  or  farmer,  who,  appreciating  the 
services  rendered  earlier  in  the  season,  is  loath  to  kill  the  innocent 
marauders,  or,  even  if  so  disposed,  is  restrained  by  law. 

Protection  of  Garden  Truck. — It  tries  even  a  bird  lover's 
patience  to  see  garden  peas  over  which  he  has  spent  time  and 
labor  disappear  before  his  eyes  as  fast  as  the  pods  fill.  In  the 
writer's  experience,  orioles  have  been  the  chii'f  malefactors  in  this 


410       RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

connection,  though  later  the  rose-breasted  grosbeak  developed  a 
fondness  for  this  vegetable.  English  sparrows  often  eat  peas, 
lettuce,  and  other  garden  crops.  A  scarecrow  erected  near  the 
rows  does  little  or  no  good.  But  cheap  white  mosquito  bar  over 
the  plants  will  prove  effective.  It  is  a  little  expensive  and  possibly 
has  no  particularly  good  effect  upon  the  growth  and  development 
of  the  pods.  This  netting  can  be  pegged  down  on  either  side  of 
the  rows  so  as  to  completely  exclude  the  birds.  In  the  writer's 
garden  this  was  not  done  on  every  row,  but  it  was  found  that  orioles 
once  caught  under  the  netting  became  so  terrified  that  when 
finally  released,  did  not  again  trouble  the  plants. 

A  friend  has  suggested  the  following,  much  in  use  in  South 
Africa,  where  some  protection  against  birds  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary: Two  stakes  are  driven  into  the  ground  at  each  end  of  the 
row — that  is,  a  stake  at  each  "corner";  then  ordinary  cheap  black 
cotton  thread  is  run  from  stake  to  stake  as  high  as,  or  higher  than, 
the  plants,  and  close  enough  together  to  make  it  impossible  for 
the  birds  to  fly  to  the  plants  without  striking  one  or  more  strands. 
Apparently  this  thread  is  not  seen  by  them,  and  contact  with  it 
causes  some  terror.  If  the  row  is  a  long  one,  additional  posts  are 
called  for. 

Netting  of  mosquito  bar  is  frequently  resorted  to  in  protecting 
strawberries,  currants,  cherries,  grapes,  and  other  fruits.  Some 
birds  are  intimidated  by  white  strings  or  rags  or  bright  pieces  of 
tin  or  paper  bags  swaying  in  the  breeze.  But  this  is  seldom  true  of 
the  orioles  with  a  fondness  for  peas.  Other  means  of  saving  prod- 
ucts of  the  garden  will  no  doubt  suggest  themselves  to  the  gardener. 

Protection  of  Field  Crops  from  Birds  and  Other  Animals. — 
Corn,  after  being  planted,  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  few  animals 
which  cause  loss  to  the  farmer.  Chief  among  these  at  times  is 
the  crow.  Any  treatment  given  the  seed  to  protect  it  from  the 
attacks  of  this  bird  will,  at  the  same  time,  afford  protection 
against  a  few  insects  which  occasionally  eat  the  seed,  and  also 
reduce  the  loss  from  striped  squirrels,  gophers,  and  kindred  four- 
footed  creatures. 

Poisoning. — Crows  can  be  poisoned  by  dissolving  ten  cents 
worth  of  sulfate  of  strychnine  in  enough  hot  water  to  soak  up  two 
quarts  of  corn.  This  should  be  scattered  late  in  the  evening  about 
the  field  where  crows  are  working  so  they  may  find  it  there  in  the 
early  morning.  One  should  not  forget  that  strychnine  is  a  deadly 
poison. 


QUESTIONS  411 

Tarring  Seed. — One  of  the  safest  and  best  ways  of  tarring  corn 
and  yet  not  affecting  its  use  in  a  planter  is  one  originating  in  Massa- 
chusetts. "Put  one-fourth  to  one-half  bushel  of  corn  in  a  half- 
barrel  tub;  pour  in  a  pailful  of  hot  water,  or  as  much  as  is  neces- 
sary to  well  cover  the  corn;  dip  a  stick  in  gas  tar  and  stir  this 
briskly  in  the  corn;  repeat  until  the  corn  is  entirely  black;  pour 
off  on  burlap  sacks;  spread  in  the  sun  and  stir  two  or  three  times 
during  the  day.  If  this  work  is  done  in  the  morning  and  the 
day  is  sunny,  the  corn  will  be  ready  for  the  planter  the  next  day 
without  any  other  care."  A  machine  will  easily  handle  corn 
treated  in  this  way.  Another  way  is  as  follows:  "Put  corn  in  a 
fertilizer  sack;  pour  thinned  tar  on  the  corn;  tie  the  sack;  let  the 
boys  tumble  the  sack  about;  add  ashes  or  land  plaster;  tumble 
some  more  and  it  is  ready  for  the  planter."  The  gas  tar  may  be 
diluted  with  linseed  oil  or  gasoline. 

Scarecrows. — If  scarecrows  are  used,  they  should  be  changed 
occasionally.  Forbes,  in  "Useful  Birds  and  Their  Protection," 
advises  the  use  of  a  barrel  hung  on  a  leaning  pole. 

It  has  been  found  that  white  twine  about  the  edges  of  a  corn 
field,  strung  on  high  poles,  and  hung  with  strips  of  tin  and  white 
rags,  one  about  every  thirty  feet,  is  fairly  effective  in  keeping  crows 
away  from  a  planted  field.  If,  in  addition  to  this,  a  few  dead 
crows  are  suspended  from  high  poles  in  different  parts  of  the 
field,  the  combination  of  white  twine  and  bright  tin  shining  in  the 
sun  and  the  dead  crows  as  a  warning  to  would-be  evil  doers  works 
so  well  that  the  farmer  may  rest  assured  it  will  be  many  days  before 
his  field  is  touched  by  these  marauders.  This  remedy,  or  the 
twine  alone,  is  in  quite  general  use  to-day. 

Shooting. — If  one  is  a  good  shot  with  a  rifle,  and  can  "pick 
off"  a  crow  or  two  at  long  range,  the  birds  keep  away  from  a 
field  so  protected.  Even  if  not  hit,  they  seem  to  realize  that  it 
is  dangerous  ground.  Any  birds  killed  should  be  hung  up  in  the 
field. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Enumerate  the  relations  of  birds  to  agriculture. 

2.  What  is  the  scientific  name  of  the  class,  and  the  names  of  two  leading 

orders? 

3.  Name  ten  families  of  birds  in  the  Order  Passeres  that  are  important  from 

the  standpoint  of  the  agriculturist  and  orchardist. 

4.  Give  in  detail  the  habits,  good  or  bad,  of  the  following:    Robin,  wood 

warbler,  kingbird,  wren,  blackbird,  chickadee,  downy  woodpecker. 


412       RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS  TO  AGRICULTURE 

5.  Give  some  arguments  for  and  against  the  protection  of  crows;  yellow- 

bellied  woodpecker. 

6.  What  determines  the  usefulness  or  contrary  of  any  bird? 

7.  Why  should  a  farmer  hesitate  before  condemning  any  bird? 

8.  Name  some  beneficial  hawks;  some  injurious  ones. 

9.  Suggest  methods  by  which  birds  may  be  attracted. 

10.  Give  details  necessary  in  construction  and  use  of  bird  houses. 

11.  Enumerate  some  of  the  methods  for  protecting  crops  from  small  birds 

and  from  crows. 

12.  Give  the  bad,  and  good  qualities  (if  any)  of  the   English  or  European 

sparrow. 

13.  What  can  you  say  from  your  own  experience  in  its  favor? 

14.  What  metnods  are  suggested  for  its  destruction? 

15.  From  your  own  observations,  would  you  regard  the  brown  thrush  to  be 

useful  or  the  contrary?    Give  reasons. 

16.  How  would  you  judge  the  cat-bird  in  this  connection? 

17.  Give  points  to  be  observed  in  the  study  of  birds. 

References.— U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin :  493,  The  English  Sparrow  as  a 
Pest;  497,  Game,  Aquatic,  and  Rapacious  Birds  in  Relation  to  Man;  513, 
Fifty  Common  Birds  (15  cents);  609,  Bird  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them; 
630,  Some  Common  Birds  Useful  to  the  Farmer;  755,  Common  Birds  of  South- 
eastern United  States. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  Separates:  504,  Plants  Useful  to  Attract 
Birds  and  Protect  Fruit;  659,  Winter  Crow  Roosts.  Leaflets  and  Bulletins, 
National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies,  New  York  City.  Bird  Guide  to 
Land  Birds,  C.  K.  Reed,  Worcester,  Mass. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

FARMERS  and  orchardists  suffer  serious  losses  from  rodents. 
The  various  species  of  rabbits,  field  mice,  ground  squirrels,  gophers 
and  prairie  dogs  levy  an  annual  toll  of  over  ten  million  dollars 
upon  agricultural  products.  In  wooded  sections  of  the  middle 
and  northern  states  the  cottontail  rabbit  works  havoc  in  winter 
in  nurseries  and  young  orchards,  frequently  girdling  valuable 
trees.  Rats  are  destructive  to  corn,  grain,  and  other  stored  prod- 
ucts, and  also  endanger  life  by  spreading  disease. 

The  injuries  of  a  number  of  the  most  common  animals  of  this 
character  are  discussed  in  this  chapter,  and  practical  remedies 
are  given. 

Hares  and  Rabbits. — It  is  hard  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between 
hares  and  rabbits.  The  names  are  applied  indiscriminately  to 
almost  all  animals  of  this  group  except  the  cottontail.  In  gen- 
eral, it  may  be  said  that  the  true  hare  does  not  burrow,  but  it 
would  hardly  be  correct  to  say  that  all  members  of  this  family 
which  do  not  burrow  are  hares.  The  so-called  Belgian  hare  is  not 
a  hare,  but  a  rabbit.  This  animal  burrows  if  allowed  to  do  so, 
plucks  fur  from  itself  to  prepare  its  nest  for  its  young,  and  gives 
birth  to  a  litter  of  from  four  to  eight  or  more  whose  eyes  are  closed 
at  birth.  In  marked  contrast,  the  prairie  hare,  commonly  called 
the  jack-rabbit,  crouches  on  its  form  upon  the  prairie  and  pro- 
duces from  one  to  six  young,  whose  eyes  are  open  when  born. 
The  development  of  the  young  jack-rabbit  is  very  rapid,  and  when 
it  is  only  a  week  old  it  is  nearly  or  quite  able  to  look  out  for  itself. 

The  cottontail  or  gray  rabbit  (Fig.  399)  is  found  over  almost 
all  of  North  America.  On  account  of  its  wide  distribution  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  increases,  it  is  the  most  injurious  of  the 
rabbits.  While  the  cottontail  resorts  to  burrows  made  by  other 
animals,  when  they  are  available,  it  may  have  a  brush  heap,  or 
even  a  tussock  of  coarse  grass  or  weeds,  for  its  home.  It  breeds 
in  early  spring  and  on  through  the  season.  On  an  average,  from 
two  to  four  young  (Fig.  400)  are  produced  at  a  birth,  and  there 
may  be  more  than  one  litter.  The  young  are  weaned  when  about 
three  weeks  old.  There  is  good  authority  for  the  statement  that 

413 


414     SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

members  of  this  species  may  bear  one  or  possibly  two  litters  before 
they  are  a  year  old. 

Injurious  Work  of  Rabbits. — Clover  and  alfalfa  are  favorite 
foods,  as  are  many  of  our  garden  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  the 
writer  has  discovered  to  his  cost  that  the  cottontail  will  eat  the 
tender  tips  of  growing  tulips.  Gray  rabbits  are  most  destructive 
in  the  winter,  eating  the  bark  of  orchard  trees  and  nursery  stock, 
frequently  biting  off  the  trees  in  a  nursery  with  a  cut  as  smooth 
as  that  of  a  knife,  and  in  the  same  way  pruning  uncovered  grape- 
vines and  ornamental  shrubs. 


FIG.  399. — A  cottontail  rabbit. 

The  natural  enemies  of  rabbits  include  almost  all  of  our 
larger  hawks,  the  marsh  owls,  and  the  great-horned  owl.  Crows 
sometimes  kill  young  rabbits.  Weasels,  foxes,  prairie  wolves  or 
coyotes,  and  probably  minks  and  skunks,  also  prey  upon  them. 

The  relentless  warfare  continually  waged  against  hawks  and 
owls,  foxes,  coyotes,  and  skunks  is,  in  a  large  measure,  responsible 
for  the  prevalence  of  rabbits  and  field  mice  in  numbers  great  enough 
to  do  serious  injury. 

Rabbits  are  intermediate  hosts  for  internal  parasites  of  the 
fox  and  coyote.  In  summer  time  the  presence  of  one  or  more  of 
these  is  unpleasantly  evident,  andbots  and  ticks  are  also  found 
upon  them  in  the  warm  weather.  In  winter,  rabbits  are  of  some 
value  as  food  for  man. 


POISONING  RABBITS 


415 


Poisoning  rabbits  in  spring,  before  green  food  is  obtainable 
and  before  the  first  litter  has  been  produced,  is  a  good  plan  for 
eliminating  the  cottontail.  Poisoning  late  in  the  fall  or  during 
winter  is  also  recommended.  Cooperation  on  the  part  of  neigh- 
bors in  this  matter  is.  desirable. 

The  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows:  Powder  some  crystals 
of  sulfate  of  strychnia  with  the  head  of  a  heavy  nail,  without 
removing  the  strychnine  from  the  small  bottle  in  which  it  is  sold. 
Put  as  much  of  the  powder  as  can  be  held  on  the  point  of  a  pocket- 


FIG.  400. — A  nest  of  young  rabbits.     (Ohio  Station.) 

knife  into  slits  hi  small  pieces  of  apple.  These  pieces  may  be 
stuck  on  small  twigs  and  set  in  the  snow  in  order  that  they  may 
be  easily  seen  above  the  surface.  One  can  not  be  too  careful  with 
poisons  of  this  sort.  These  poisoned  baits  should  be  distributed 
in  such  a  way  that  other  animals  and  children  can  not  get  at  them. 
Parsnips  or  carrots  or  melon  rind  may  be  substituted  for  the  apple, 
and  frequently  a  change  of  bait  is  desirable.  When  using  poisoned 
fruit  or  roots,  other  fruit  and  roots  should  be  kept  out  of  reach  of 
the  animals  to  be  killed. 

Young  andJfreshly  cut  apple  twigs  or  suckers  bearing  buds 
may  also  be  used,  dipping  them  in  a  sweetened  strychnine  solution 


416     SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

and  placing  them  about  orchard  or  nursery  or  in  rabbit  runways 
elsewhere.  Be  sure  that  the  buds  are  poisoned.  This  method  is 
applicable  in  winter  or  spring,  and  has  an  advantage  over  the 
first-mentioned  method  in  that  it  does  not  endanger  the  lives  of 
birds  and  other  valuable  animals. 

Rabbits  killed  by  poisoning  should  be  collected  and  buried 
or  burned,  so  that  the  poisoned  carcasses  may  do  no  harm.  The 
strychnine  itself  should  be  carefully  guarded  and  kept  out  of  reach 
of  children. 

Repellent  washes  against  rabbits,  upon  tree  trunks  and  shrub- 
bery, are  strongly  recommended  in  order  to  prevent  the  ravages 
of  the  cottontail.  One  application  may  be  made  in  the  fall  and 
perhaps  another  on  a  warm  day  in  winter  or  in  early  spring.  A 
heavy  whitewash,  made  a  deep  blue  by  the  addition  of  bluestone 
solution,  is  excellent.  Washes  should  not  be  allowed  to  freeze, 
and  therefore  should  not  be  applied  in  severe  weather. 

A  poison  wash  for  the  trunks  of  young  trees,  used  effectively 
in  Idaho  against  jack-rabbits,  is  recommended.  The  recipe  for 
making  it  is  as  follows:  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  strychnia  sulfate 
in  three  quarts  of  boiling  water.  Dissolve  one-half  pound  of 
laundry  starch  in  one  pint  of  cold  water,  stirring  thoroughly. 
Pour  the  starch  into  the  vessel  containing  the  strychnine  and  boil 
the  mixture  a  short  time  until  the  starch  is  clear.  Add  six  ounces 
of  glycerine  and  stir.  When  the  paste  is  cool  enough,  apply  to 
tree  trunks  with  a  paint  brush. 

Certain  colloid  substances  are  on  the  market  which  promise 
to  afford  good  vehicles  for  strychnia,  and  which  will  last  on  trunk 
and  branches  for  a  long  period. 

Shooting  and  Driving  Jack-Rabbits. — Jack-rabbits  are  also 
killed  by  shooting  from  wagons  or  automobiles.  Rabbit  drives 
are  of  common  occurrence  in  the  West,  a  large  number  of  neigh- 
bors, mounted  or  in  wagons,  cooperating.  The  animals,  some- 
times thousands  in  number,  are  forced*into  a  corral  and  killed. 

Rabbit  Guards. — Mechanical  guards  of  various  kinds  are  also 
used  to  keep  off  rabbits.  These  may  be  of  paper,  but  tarred  paper 
will  sometimes  kill  young  trees.  We  may  use  wire  screen  (Fig. 
401)  or  wood  veneer  (Fig.  402).  The  writer  has  successfully  used 
several  thicknesses  of  newspaper,  tied  securely  about  the  trunk. 
Heavy  building  paper  or  cornstalks  used  in  the  same  way  are 
efficacious.  All  of  these  guards  should  extend  a  few  inches  into 
the  ground,  in  order  to  form  a  barrier  against  mice,  and  should 


FENCING  AGAINST  RABBITS 


417 


reach  two  feet  or  more  above  the  ground.  The  guards  may  be 
removed  in  summer,  when  danger  from  rabbits  and  mice  is  over. 
But  they  are  frequently  left  on  to  protect  the  trunks  of  the  young 
trees  from  sun-scald  and  from  borers.  Ornamental  shrubs  may 
be  drawn  together  in  the  late  fall  and  wrapped  with  old  canvas, 
burlap,  or  heavy  paper. 

Trees  and  shrubs  should  be  protected  by  mechanical  guards 
or  washes,  even  if  poison  is  used. 


Fia.  401. — Apple    tree    protected    by    wire 
screen.     (Ohio  Station.) 


FIG.  402.  —  Tree     guard     made     of 
veneer.     (Ohio  Station.) 


wood 


Trapping  rabbits,  as  every  boy  knows,  can  always  be  resorted 
to.  The  cottontail  readily  falls  victim  to  the  old-fashioned  box 
trap  and  to  snares  of  various  kinds. 

Fencing  Against  Rabbits. — The  so-called  " rabbit-proof  fences" 
may  be  efficacious  in  summer,  if  properly  installed.  They  afford 
sufficient  protection  for  melons  and  similar  crops.  But,  unless 
they  are  quite  high,  they  may  occasionally  prove  useless  in  winter, 
when  drifted  snow  provides  a  way  over. 
27 


418     SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

Girdled  Trees. — Many  a  valuable  tree,  girdled  by  rabbits  or 
mice,  has  been  saved  by  bridge-grafting  (Fig.  403) — a  process 
easily  understood  by  any  one  who  has  done  any  grafting.  It 
consists  in  using  long  scions  to  "bridge"  the  portion  deprived  of 


FIG.  403. — A  tree   "  bridge-graf te 


(Ohio  Station.) 
to  the  tree. 


Note:   the  sciona  should  be  closer 


its  bark.  The  cambium  or  inner  bark  of  the  scion  is  made  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  inner  bark  of  the  tree,  both  above  and  below 
the  injury.  Grafting  wax  is  used  to  protect  the  ends  of  the  grafts 
from  the  weather.  Three,  four,  or  more  grafts  are  used  on  each 
tree. 


A  GOPHER  GUN 


419 


Frequently  a  girdled  tree  will  produce  leaves  the  first  summer 
after  the  injury,  but  it  will  die  before  the  next  season,  if  completely 
girdled. 

Pocket  Gophers. — Pouched  rats  or  pocket  gophers  are  serious 
pests  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  These  animals  (Fig.  404)  are 
provided  with  a  pocket-like  pouch  on  each  side  of  the  head  (Fig. 
405).  The  pouches  are  outside,  independent  of  the  mouth.  The 
presence  of  mounds  of  earth  in  garden,  orchard,  or  lawn  indicates 
the  presence  of  either  a  pocket  gopher  or  a  mole.  The  burrow  of 
the  gopher  is  sometimes  left  open  temporarily,  which  is  not  the 
case  with  that  of  the  mole. 

The  first  litter  of  the  pocket  gopher  is  born  in  the  spring,  late 
in  April  or  in  May,  in  northern  states.  The  litters  average  one  or 


JfOf 


FiO.  404.— A  pocket  gopher.     (After  Merriam,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

two.  There  is  probably  only  one  litter  a  year.  Evidently  only 
one  pocket  gopher  occupies  a  burrow,  except  during  the  breeding 
season.  Pocket  gophers  are  largely  nocturnal  in  their  habits  above 
ground. 

Hawks  and  owls,  foxes,  weasels,  and  the  common  house  cat 
prey  upon  pocket  gophers.  It  is  probable  that  the  larger  snakes 
also  devour  them. 

Trapping  Gophers. — A  small  steel  trap  may  be  set  in  the  bur- 
row by  digging  down  a  foot  or  more  behind  a  newly  made  mound. 
The  top  of  the  trap  should  be  on  a  level  with  the  floor  of  the 
burrow  and  nearly  covered  with  fine  earth.  The  opening  should 
be  covered  in  order  to  exclude  the  light. 

A  Gopher  Gun  (Fig.  406)  has  been  used  by  the  writer  against 


420     SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 


both  pocket  gophers  and  moles.    There  is  some  danger  in  handling 
it,  and  it  is  not,  therefore,  recommended  for  general  use. 

Poisoning  Gophers. — By  far  the  best  way  to  destroy  pocket 
gophers  is  by  poisoned  bait.  This  is  used  in  the  spring,  before 
root  crops  are  in  the  ground  and  before  an  abundance  of  green 
food  is  available,  and  particularly  before  the  young  are  weaned. 
As  much  powdered  strychnine  as  can  be  held  on  the  point  of  a 
knife  blade  is  introduced  into  a  slit  in  a  small  piece  of  parsnip, 
carrot,  apple,  or  potato,  or  a  large  raisin.  The  bait  is  placed, 
by  means  of  a  spoon  tied  to  a  stick,  deep  down  in  a  branch  burrow 
or,  better,  in  the  main  runway,  reached  through  the  branch  bur- 
row. It  may  be  opened  if  necessary.  This  is  very  effective.  It 
is  well  to  place  a  few  drops  of  anise  on  all  poisoned  bait  for  rodents. 
In  poisoning  pocket  gophers  or  prairie  dogs,  mounds 
should  be  levelled  down  after  placing  the  poison, 
and  thus  one  may  know,  by  looking  for  new  mounds, 
whether  the  animals  have  been  killed  or  not. 


FIG.  405.— Outline  of  head  of 
pocket  gopher  showing  extent  and 
opening  A  of  cheek  pouch  on  left 
side. 


FIG.  406. — An  effective  but  unsafe  gopher  gun  made 
with  a  piece  of  gaspipe. 


Fumigation  with  bisulfid  of  carbon  is  not  satisfactory. 

As  is  generally  well  known,  the  main  burrow  of  these  animals 
is  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  below  the  surface,  and  the  mounds 
we  see  upon  the  surface  consist  of  the  excavated  earth,  pushed  by 
the  gopher  to  the  openings  of  the  lateral  burrows  leading  from  the 
main  burrow  (Fig.  407).  The  pockets  or  cheek  pouches  are  used 
to  carry  food,  not  earth. 

The  appearance  of  mounds  of  the  pocket  gopher  in  an  orchard, 
young  or  old,  should  be  the  signal  for  the  owner  to  immediately 
take  steps  to  destroy  the  unwelcome  visitor,  even  if  no  injury 
due  to  its  presence  is  evident  at  the  time. 

Ditches  for  Gophers.— Dig  a  ditch  the  width  of  a  spade  and 
sixteen  inches  deep  around  the  field  or  orchard  to  be  protected. 


GROUND  SQUIRRELS,  GRAY  GOPHERS          421 

At  intervals  of  about  forty  yards  in  this  ditch  sink  five-gallon 
oil  cans,  their  tops  just  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  occu- 
pying its  entire  width.  Gophers  falling  into  the  ditch  and  seeking 
exits  fall  into  the  cans.  In  California  and  other  dry  regions  such 
ditches  should  be  made  in  June,  before  the  natural  growth  dries 
up,  and  before  gophers  begin  to  seek  cultivated  crops.  This  form 
of  trap  will  also  catch  some  field  mice. 

The  Striped  Gopher. — The  " thirteen-lined  gopher"  or  ground 
squirrel  (Fig.  408)  feeds  upon  insects  in  all  stages.  Vegetable 
food,  however,  such  as  seeds,  buds,  grain,  and  clover,  forms  the 
larger  part  of  its  food.  Sometimes,  as  intimated  above,  these  ani- 
mals become  decidedly  destructive.  They  yield  readily  to  poisoned 
grain  placed  in  their  burrows;  they  can  be  snared  with  a  slip-noose, 
and  their  numbers  may  also  be  kept  clown  by  means  of  a  gun. 


FIG.   407. — Diagram  of  burrow  of  pocket  gopher;  A,  surface  of  ground;  B,  main  burrow: 
C,  branrh  burrow  open. 

The  "  thirteen-lined  gopher  "  mates  in  early  spring.  The  young 
are  born  early  in  June  in  the  North.  The  number  in  the  litter 
varies  from  one  to  twelve,  but  the  average  is  five  or  six.  The 
young  are  without  hair  until  about  three  weeks  after  birth. 

The  natural  enemies  of  this  timid  animal  are  foxes,  weasels, 
hawks,  skunks,  the  common  house  cat,  and  probably  the  larger 
snakes.  This  so-called  "gopher"  is  really  a  ground  squirrel,  and 
belongs  to  the  genus  Citellus. 

Ground  Squirrels,  Digger  Squirrels,  Gray  Gophers. — In  the 
Middle  West  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  these  pests  (Figs.  409 
and  410)  are  commonly  injurious  to  grain,  cutting  off  stalks, 
feeding  on  the  juicy  parts  and  frequently  upon  the  grain  itself. 
Perhaps  the  chief  injury  is  caused  by  their  mowing  down  the  grain. 
Barley  is  preferred,  but  all  grain  suffers,  as  well  as  timothy, 
alfalfa,  potatoes,  and  vegetables  in  gardens. 

Early  in  the  spring  a  litter  of  six,  seven,  or  more  young  is 


422     SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

produced.  There  are  evidently  two  litters.  During  the  winter 
these  animals  hibernate,  emerging  lean  and  hungry  from  their 
burrows  in  the  spring. 

Control  Measures  Against  Ground  Squirrels. — Poisoning  is 
most  effective,  and  of  all  the  poisons  sulfate  of  strychnia  dissolved 
in  water  is  the  one  most  often  recommended.  For  evident  reasons, 
the  best  time  to  poison  these  animals  is  in  early  spring,  before  the 
first  litter  of  young  is  produced.  Various  recipes  for  preparing 
the  poison  are  published.  The  following  one  gives  good  results: 

Dissolve  one  and  one-half  ounces  of  sulfate  of  strychnia  in 
two  quarts  of  water,  adding  a  quantity  of  molasses,  syrup,  or 


FIG.  408. — Thirteen-lined  ground  squirrel,   or  "striped  gopher,"   Citellus  tridecim-lineatus. 

sugar  and  about  one  tablespoonful  of  oil  of  anise.  This  last  is 
not  absolutely  necessary,  but  makes  the  bait  more  attractive. 
While  this  solution  is  hot,  mix  it  thoroughly  with  one  bushel  of 
wheat  and  let  it  stand  over  night.  Place  the  grain  in  the  squirrel's 
burrow.  This  is  best  done  in  the  morning.  Use  a  tablespoonful 
for  each  hole.  A  bushel  of  this  poisoned  grain  is  sufficient  for  at 
least  one  thousand  holes.  Less  of  the  poisoned  bait  may  be  pre- 
pared by  using  the  ingredients  in  less  amounts.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  strychnine  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  every  precau- 
tion should  be  taken  to  avoid  danger  to  other  animals  or  to  human 
beings. 


GROUND  SQUIRRELS 


423 


A  field  to  be  planted  in  corn  may  be  freed  from  gophers  by  the 
use  of  poison  once  or  twice  before  corn-planting  time.    Seed  corn 


Fia.  409. — Gray  ground  squirrel  or  "gray  gopher,"  C.  franklinii.     (After  Merriam, 

U.  S.  D.  A.) 


FIG.  410. — Another  species  of  ground  squirrel,  C.  richarditonii.     (After  Merriam,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

can  be  protected  from  their  attack  by  various  means.  Soak  corn 
in  the  strychnine  solution  mentioned  above.  Dry  this  and  dis- 
tribute it  over  the  infested  area.  If  gophers  have  not  disappeared 


424      SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

at  corn-planting  time,  the  seed  corn  itself  may  be  soaked  in  the 
strychnine  solution  for  twenty-four  hours  without  injury.  This 
is  perhaps  the  better  way,  as  only  the  animals  actually  guilty  of 
attacking  the  planted  corn  are  killed,  while  if  poisoned  corn  is 
distributed  promiscuously  valuable  birds  and  innocent  animals 
may  suffer. 

The  common  mole  (Fig.  411)  is  usually  not  a  pest,  but  a  bene- 
ficial animal,  feeding  upon  worms  and  the  various  insects  which 
live  in  the  ground.  At  times,  however,  it  becomes  a  nuisance, 
on  account  of  the  presence  of  its  mounds  in  large  numbers  in 
gardens  and  lawns.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  moles  are  largely 
insectivorous  in  their  habits,  they  sometimes  eat  garden  products 


FIG.  411. — The  common  mole.     (From  Muller.) 

which  are  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  sometimes  gnaw 
bulbs.  It  is  believed  that  they  occasionally  eat  newly  planted 
corn  and  peas,  and  the  writer  has  seen  one  in  captivity  eat  every 
pea  in  an  opened  pod  which  was  thrown  into  its  cage. 

Moles  have  few  natural  enemies.  Even  the  common  house 
cat,  though  she  may  occasionally  catch  a  mole,  disdains  to  eat  it. 

Trapping  and  Other  Methods  for  the  Mole. — We  have  but  few, 
if  any,  records  of  successful  attempts  at  poisoning  moles.  A 
friend,  to  rid  his  garden  of  moles,  soaked  some  seed  peas  in  a 
strychnia  solution  and  placed  them  in  the  burrows.  This  resulted 
in  immediately  stopping  the  depredations  of  the  animals.  Fresh 
peas  would  furnish  a  more  attractive  bait.  Soak  them  in  a  strych- 
nia solution  or  wet  them  and  roll  them  in  powdered  strychnine. 
Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  spear  trap 


FIELD  MICE 


425 


(Fig.  412).  This  is  set  over  the  ridge  made  by  a  mole  burrowing 
just  beneath  the  surface  in  search  of  food.  If  this  surface  burrow 
is  still  in  use,  the  trap  hardly  ever  fails  to  catch  the  animal. 

Moles  work  ordinarily  in  the  early  morning  and  late  afternoon, 
and  when  the  earth  of  a  mound  moves,  indicating  the  addition 
of  fresh  material  from  below,  a  manure  fork  driven  into  the  moving 
mass  generally  impales  the  animal;  or  a  light  charge  of  powder 
and  shot  is  effective. 

F.  E.  Wood,  in  "A  Study  of  the  Mammals  of  Champaign 
County,  Illinois"  (Bull.  111.  State  Lab.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  viii,  1910), 
states  that  moles  are  very  sensitive  to  odors  and 
may  be  driven  away  by  placing  naphthalin, 
moth-balls,  carbon  bisulfid,  or  formalin  in  and 
around  their  runs. 

Field  mice  (Fig.  413)  destroy  at  least  three 
million  dollars'  worth  of  crops  in  the  United 
States  every  year.  During  the  last  few  years 
farm  losses  have  greatly  increased  through  the 
work  of  these  animals.  Their  extreme  fecundity 
is  emphasized  by  a  published  statement  by 
D.  E.  Lantz,  based  upon  scientific  observation, 
that  "a  single  pair  and  their  progeny  in  five 
seasons  would  amount  to  nearly  one  million 
individuals." 

Field   mice  begin   breeding   in    the    spring, 
probably  early  in  April  in  the  North,  and  pro- 
duce several  litters  of  from  four  to  eight  each 
in  a  season.     The  period  of  gestation  is  about   FIG.  412.— A  successful 
twenty  days.     Their  round  nests  are  found  at  mole  trap' 

the  ends  of  very  short  burrows,  under  stumps  or  brush  heaps, 
or  even  directly  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  fastened  stoutly 
to  surrounding  stems.  They  seek  concealment  later  under  hay 
stacks,  shocks  of  corn,  and  similar  places.  They  do  not  hiber- 
nate, but  continue  their  depredations  during  winter  in  their  hiding 
places  and  under  the  protecting  snow. 

Doubtless  the  war  of  extermination  carried  on  by  man  against 
hawks,  owls,  crows,  skunks,  foxes,  weasels,  and  snakes,  all  natural 
enemies  of  mice,  is  to  a  large  extent  responsible  for  present-day 
losses  through  the  work  of  field  mice.  Other  enemies  of  these 
mice  are  wolves,  raccoons,  bitterns,  and  herons.  Perhaps  the 
most  effective  way  to  keep  down  the  numbers  of  field  mice  is  to 


426      SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

protect,  instead  of  slay,  the  various  animals  which  prey  upon 
them  and  hence  are  beneficial,  though  frequently  referred  to  as 
"vermin." 

Injuries  caused  by  field  mice  are:  Gnawing  of  orchard  and 
nursery  trees  and  shrubbery  close  to  or  just  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  usually  during  the  winter  season;  the  destruction 
of  various  kinds  of  grain  at  harvest  time;  and  occasional  depreda- 
tions in  houses  and  barns  into  which  they  have  gained  entrance. 

In  one  case  a  very  large  per  cent  of  young  maple  trees  on  three 
hundred  acres  were  killed  by  mice,  the  injury  being  discovered 
after  the  snow  had  gone  off.  The  owner  of  this  tract  began  after- 
ward to  poison  the  offenders.  Probably  the  injury  to  maples  just 
referred  to  is,  in  part,  due  to  the  killing  off  of  birds  of  prey  and 


FIG.   413. — Field  mice.     (From  Brehm.) 

four-footed  animals  that  feed  upon  mice.  It  seems  to  be  a  com- 
monly accepted  idea  that  all  hawks  and  owls  must  be  shot.  They 
both  work  on  field  mice.  Skunks  and  other  small,  four-footed 
animals  that  prey  upon  mice  are  mercilessly  destroyed  as  being 
pests.  It  is  by  acts  of  this  kind  that  the  balance  in  nature  is  dis- 
turbed and  unpleasant  results  follow. 

Field  mice  are  fond  of  wheat  and  rye,  and  injure  timothy  and 
clover.  It  has  been  estimated  that  one  adult  field  mouse  may 
consume,  in  one  year,  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  pounds  of 
green  vegetation.  They  have  at  least  one  redeeming  trait,  for 
they  evidently  eat  a  few  insects,  such  as  grasshoppers  and  beetles. 
However,  the  slight  good  they  do  in  this  way  is  far  more  than 
offset  by  their  injurious  work. 

The  work  of  mice  in  an  orchard  can  easily  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  rabbits.  The  latter  gnaw  higher  up,  and  the  marks 


POISONING  MICE  427 

of  their  large  incisor  teeth  are  plainly  visible.  The  finer  markings 
of  the  small  teeth  of  the  mice  can  be  seen  in  the  wood  from  which 
they  have  removed  the  bark.  As  said  before,  they  gnaw  near  or 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Mounding  Injured  Trees. — A  tree  of  some  size,  badly  injured 
by  field  mice,  may  frequently  be  saved,  if  the  inner  layer  of  bark 
has  not  been  destroyed  or  seriously  injured,  by  keeping  a  mound 
of  earth  over  the  injury  until  new  bark  is  formed. 

Protection  Against  Field  Mice. — If  the  area  is  a  small  one, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  small,  inexpensive  mouse-traps,  such  as 
sell  for  five  cents  each  or  less.  A  very  good  method  of  baiting 
these  traps  is  to  smear  the  pan  with  bacon  fat  and  then  dust 
it  with  oatmeal. 

Early  mulching  of  fruit  trees  should  be  avoided.  Mulching 
should  be  done  after  the  beginning  of  cold  weather,  if  at  all.  Cover 
crops,  such  as  buckwheat,  oats,  and  clover,  and  trash  of  any  kind 
harbor  mice  and  render  injury  likely.  An  orchard  in  sod  is  more 
likely  to  be  injured  than  a  cultivated  one. 

The  snow  about  the  fruit  trees  should  be  tramped  down  occa- 
sionally during  the  winter  to  keep  the  mice  from  working  under  it. 

Guards  Against  Mice. — Mechanical  guards  of  approved  pat- 
tern for  use  around  trees  are  absolutely  reliable.  These  are  de- 
scribed under  control  of  rabbits. 

Washes  to  keep  off  Mice. — An  application  of  a  thick  white- 
wash is  a  fair  repellent  for  mice  as  well  as  rabbits.  It  is  made 
by  slaking  quicklime  in  water,  and  rendered  a  deep  blue  by  the 
addition  of  bluestone  solution.  It  should  be  applied  late  in  the 
fall,  and  the  application  should  be  repeated  if  possible  on  some 
warm  day  in  winter,  for  the  mixture  should  dry  on  the  tree,  not 
freeze  on.  To  be  effective  against  mice,  it  should  be  applied 
liberally  to  the  trunk  close  to  the  ground.  A  brush  or  a  spray 
pump  with  a  nozzle  adapted  for  whitewash  can  be  used.  Spraying 
the  material  in  this  way  is  preferable  in  treating  shrubbery  and 
rows  of  nursery  trees.  It  is  more  rapid  and  perhaps  more  thorough 
work.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  after  rain  and  weather  have 
removed  these  washes  from  the  trunks  of  trees  the  bark  is  again 
attractive  to  mice  and  rabbits. 

Washes  containing  blood  or  grease  should  not  be  used  upon 
trees,  as  these  are  attractive  to  mice. 

Poisoning  mice  is  probably  the  most  effective  way  of  ridding 
a  field  of  them,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  birds,  poultry, 


428      SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

or  other  animals  from  being  killed.  Early  spring,  before  the  breed- 
ing season,  is  the  best  time  for  poisoning.  Hundreds  of  field  mice 
have  been  killed  by  poisoned  bait  placed  in  frequented  locations. 
Of  all  the  poisons,  strychnine  is  the  best.  The  solution  recom- 
mended is  the  following:  One  ounce  of  sulfate  of  strychnia  dis- 
solved in  a  pint  of  boiling  water.  Boil  until  all  the  crystals  are 
dissolved.  Add  an  equal  quantity  of  sugar  syrup  and  mix  well; 
a  little  oil  of  anise  may  well  be  added  to  make  it  more  attractive. 
This  quantity  is  sufficient  to  poison  half  a  bushel  of  wheat  or  corn. 
It  is  advisable,  but  not  absolutely  necessary,  to  use  cracked  or 
crushed  grain,  since  it  absorbs  the  poison  better  than  the  uncrushed 
kernels.  This  poisoned  grain  should  be  allowed  to  dry.  Instead 
of  grain,  a  poisoned  dough  made  of  oatmeal  can  be  made  for 
immediate  use. 

Poisoned  wheat  has  been  used  at  the  base  of  fruit  trees  with 
telling  effect,  and  the  same  bait  might  also  be  placed  along  nursery 
rows.  Poisoned  grain  or  other  poisoned  bait  should  be  placed  in 
protected  situations,  as  under  boards,  raised  an  inch  from  the 
ground,  in  burrows,  or  in  tile.  This  is  to  prevent  birds,  poultry, 
or  domestic  animals  from  obtaining  it.  Strychnine  is  a  deadly 
poison,  and  the  greatest  care  should  be  observed  to  prevent  acci- 
dents not  only  with  the  crystals  but  with  the  solution,  the  utensils 
used,  and  the  bait  itself. 

Fumigation  for  these  pests  does  not  appear  to  be  successful. 

Cultivation  to  Control  Field  Mice. — In  general,  mice  will  be 
less  numerous  if  neighboring  swampy  areas  are  drained,  and  if 
thorough  plowing  and  harrowing  are  resorted  to  in  cultivating 
crops.  This  discourages  the  growth  of  weeds  of  all  kinds.  The 
longer  clover  fields  and  other  fields  are  left  undisturbed,  the  more 
likely  are  mice  to  increase. 

Destroying  Field  Mice  by  Burning.— Large  numbers  of  field 
mice  have  been  destroyed  by  burning  fields  infested  with  these 
animals.  In  all  probability,  a  large  proportion  of  the  adults  may 
escape  the  burning;  but  hundreds  of  nests  scorched  on  the  outside 
contain  young,  which  can  be  quickly  killed  after  the  fire. 

Rats  and  Mice  About  the  House  and  Other  Farm  Buildings.— 
House  mice  can  generally  be  controlled  easily  with  small  and 
inexpensive  traps.  Rats,  on  the  other  hand,  become  wary  after 
a  few  have  been  killed  in  this  way,  and  tax  one's  skill  and  ingenuity 
to  the  utmost. 

The  Brown  or  Norway  rat,  which  is  now  the  common  house 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  CONTROL  OF  RATS    429 

rat  in  North  America,  is  at  times  not  only  a  veritable  pest,  but, 
on  account  of  its  harboring  fleas  and  of  its  migratory  habits,  is  a 
serious  menace  to  health,  as  it  spreads  infectious  diseases. 

Extermination  of  Rats. — 1.  Scatter  freshly  slaked  lime  in  rat 
holes  and  along  rat  runways. 

2.  Shoot  an  English  sparrow  and  put  it  under  a  board  in  a 
place  frequented  by  rats.    If  it  is  eaten,  do  the  same  thing  a  second 
time;  then  put  strychnine,  with  a  small  knife,  in  the  heart  muscles 
of  a  third  sparrow  and  put  this  in  the  same  place. 

3.  Throw  common  green  copperas  about  rat  holes  and  along 
the  runways. 

4.  Dust  dry  calomel  on  beef  scraps  and  leave  these  where  rats 
are  common.    Chickens  and  cats  should  be  kept  away  from  such 
poisoned  scraps. 

5.  Dust  dry  concentrated  lye  on  molasses  in  a  shallow  tin 
pan  and  leave  this  where  rats  run.    Care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
this,  also,  from  other  animals. 

6.  Feed  the  rats  several  days  with  a  mixture  of  three  parts 
flour  and  one  part  sugar.    Then  change  to  three  parts  flour,  one 
part  plaster  of  Paris,  and  one  part,  sugar. 

7.  Mix  bran,  flour,  sugar,  white  arsenic,  and  baking  powder. 
Bake  until  crisp,  and  crumble  near  their  holes.     . 

8.  It  is  said  that  the  presence  of  carbolineum — a  wood  pre- 
servative containing  zinc  chloride — will  drive  away  rats. 

9.  A  poison  paste  may  be  made  by  mixing  one  part  of  barium 
carbonate  (barytes),  ground  fine,  and  four  parts  cornmeal  and 
adding  sweet  oil. 

10.  Mix  four  ounces  of  calomel  (poison)  with  one  quart  or 
two  pounds  of  any  food  which  tempts  rats  or  mice.     Always 
season  with  sugar.     Place  where  rats  and  mice  run.     It  is  well 
to  cover  it,  leaving  an  aperture  large  enough  for  rats.     Keep 
water  out  of  their  reach. 

11.  There  are  various  good  traps,  and  pieces  of  young  rats 
make  good  bait. 

General  Suggestions  for  the  Control  of  Rats. — Make  the 
foundations  of  all  farm  buildings  rat-proof.  This  naturally  includes 
the  screening  of  all  basement  windows. 

Corn-cribs  may  be  screened  entirely  with  half-inch-mesh, 
galvanized  netting.  This  will  keep  out  sparrows  as  well  as  rats 
and  mice. 

Garbage  should  be  kept  in  closed  receptacles  until  carried 


430      SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

away.  The  proper  disposal  of  the  waste  of  country  slaughter- 
houses should  be  regulated  by  law. 

A  ditch  about  eighteen  inches  deep,  with  perpendicular  sides, 
dug  about  an  infested  area,  has  been  utilized  with  good  results. 
The  mice  fall  in  and  may  be  killed  before  they  can  get  out. 

Some  forms  of  virus  are  used  to  start  diseases  among  mice, 
but  with  very  indifferent  success. 

Fairly  good  results  may  be  obtained  by  changing  traps.  That 
is,  after  one  trap  has  lost  its  efficiency  because  the  rats  have 
become  familiar  with  it,  more  may  be  captured  by  substituting 
another  style  of  trap  which  has  been  proved  effective. 

A  fairly  good  trap  for  warehouses,  store-rooms,  elevators,  and 
the  like,  where  rats  congregate  in  large  numbers,  can  be  improvised 
from  an  empty  iron  can  or  tank  with  straight  and  fairly  high  sides. 
Place  meal  or  grain  in  the  bottom  of  such  a  receptacle,  with  boards, 
leading  from  the  floor  to  the  top,  and  from  the  top  to  the  meal 
or  grain  inside,  thus  allowing  the  rats  to  pass  in  and  out  freely. 
After  they  have  become  accustomed  to  this,  remove  the  boards 
from  the  inside.  This  allows  them  to  enter,  but  prevents  their 
escape. 

Suggestions  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
—Bulletin  369  treats  upon  destroying  rats  and  makes  the  following 
suggestions : 

1.  Greater  cleanliness  about  stables,  markets,  grocery  stores, 
warehouses,  courts,  alleys,  and  vacant  lots  in  cities  and  villages, 
and  like  care  on  farms  and  suburban  premises.    This  includes  the 
storage  of  waste  and  garbage  in  tightly  covered  vessels  and  the 
prompt  disposal  of  it  each  day. 

2.  Care  in  the  construction  of  buildings  and  drains,  so  as  not 
to  provide  entrance  and  retreats  for  rats,  and  the  permanent 
closing  of  all  rat  holes  in  old  houses  and  cellars. 

3.  The  early  threshing  and  marketing  of  grains  on  farms,  so 
that  stacks  and  mows  shall  not  furnish  harborage  and  food  for  rats. 

4.  Removal  of  outlying  straw  stacks  and  piles  of  trash  that 
harbor  rats  in  the  fields. 

5.  The  systematic  destruction  of  rats,  whenever  and  wherever 
possible,  by  (a)  trapping,  (b)  poisoning,  and  (c)  organized  hunts. 

6.  The  organization  of  rat  clubs  and  other  societies  for  sys- 
tematic warfare  against  rats. 

The  Woodchuck,  Marmot,  or  Ground  Hog. — This  animal  is 
an  inhabitant  of  most  farms  and  is  frequently  a  serious  offender. 


CONTROLLING  GROUND  HOGS 


431 


Clover  and  alfalfa  suffer,  as  do  many  of  the  vegetables  in  the 
kitchen  garden.  Woodchucks  in  northern  latitudes  are  dormant 
during  winter,  emerging  from  their  burrows  in  late  spring,  though 
sometimes  seen  at  the  surface  near  their  holes  early  in  February, 
giving  rise  to  the  expression  of  " ground-hog  day."  They  are 
heavy,  thick-set  animals,  brown,  black,  gray,  or  yellowish  gray; 
about  two  feet  long  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  bushy 
tail.  They  are  familiar  to  almost  every  farmer  (Fig.  414). 

Their  natural  enemies  are  not  numerous.  Dogs  and  foxes 
frequently  dig  them  out  of  their  burrows.  Wolves,  lynx,  and  the 
larger  hawks  and  owls  prey  upon  the  young  animals.  Woodchucks 
are  by  no  means  nocturnal  and  are  frequently  seen  feeding  or 


r 


FIG.  414. — Woodchuck. 

sunning  themselves  in  the  daytime.  If  cornered  they  put  up  a 
brave  fight.  Woodchuck  oil  is  valued  by  some,  and  the  flesh  has 
been  used  as  human  food,  but  otherwise  the  animals  possess  no 
attractive  virtues. 

Controlling  Ground  Hogs. — 1.  They  readily  fall  victims  to 
steel  traps  placed  in  the  mouths  of  their  burrows.  The  trap  should 
be  placed  a  short  distance  down  the  burrow,  in  a  depression,  and 
covered  lightly  with  earth.  The  chain  of  the  trap  may  be  fastened 
to  a  stick  outside.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  feasible  and  also 
the  most  effective  way  of  disposing  of  ground  hogs. 

2.  A  good  marksman  with  a  rifle  stationed  where  he  can 
command  a  view  of  the  field  can  generally  kill  them  at  long  range. 


432     SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

3.  Poisoned  baits  may  be  made  of  succulent  roots  at  a  time 
when  more  attractive  green  food  is  scarce.    Thrust  these  down 
their  burrows. 

4.  Place  a  charge  of  blasting  powder  with  a  long  fuse  attached 
as  far  as  possible  down  the  hole  and  fire  it. 

5.  Wrap  a  mass  of  cotton  or  oakum  or  other  absorbent  ma- 
terial about  a  heavy  stone.    Saturate  this  with  bisulfid  of  carbon. 
Roll  the  ball  as  far  as  possible  down  the  hole  and  close  all  openings 
immediately. 

6.  To  keep  them  from  attacking  the  garden  the  following  is 
temporarily  effective:  Tie  a  cord  one  foot  above  the  ground  out- 
side rows  of  peas,  or  patches  of  other  garden  vegetables  attractive 
to  woodchucks.     Fasten  strips  of  white  cloth  to  this  one  foot 
apart,  with  ends  hanging  down  a  few  inches. 

Prairie  Dogs. — In  some  of  our  western  states  where  large 
colonies  of  these  animals  occur  considerable  injury  has  been  caused 
in  pasture  lands  by  their  eating  or  rendering  unfit  for  use  the 
various  grasses  upon  which  cattle  feed.  Since  colonies  may  cover 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  acres  or  more  of  pasture  land,  their 
presence  is  no  small  matter  to  the  owner. 

The  common  prairie  dog  (Cynomys  ludovicianus)  is  a  brownish 
animal  about  a  foot  long.  The  brown  of  the  back  is  mixed  with 
gray  and  black.  The  under  parts  are  pale  yellow.  The  tail  is 
about  three  and  one-half  inches  long. 

Control  of  Prairie  Dogs. — In  the  late  fall  these  creatures  can 
be  killed  by  the  use  of  poisoned  grain  (see  page  428).  Place  this 
in  their  burrows,  or,  better,  about  one  and  one-half  feet  away 
from  each  burrow.  When  this  latter  practice  is  followed,  stock 
must  be  excluded  from  the  area  treated.  Two  applications,  with 
an  interval  of  about  eight  days  between  them,  should  be  made. 

In  the  summer  time,  when  plenty  of  green  food  is  available, 
poisoned  grain  is  rejected.  At  that  time  poisoned  alfalfa  has  been 
used  with  only  fair  success.  Thirty  pounds  of  green  alfalfa  is 
chopped  into  short  lengths.  A  poisoned  solution  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  sulfate  of  strychnia  in  water;  and  the  fresh-cut  alfalfa 
is  thoroughly  sprinkled  with  this.  Mix  the  poison  and  bait  in  a 
metal  tub  which  can  be  easily  cleaned.  This  poisoned  alfalfa 
should  be  sprinkled  among  the  burrows  at  the  close  of  the  day  to 
prevent  its  being  dried  by  the  hot  sun.  Stock,  of  course,  must  be 
excluded  from  the  treated  pasture. 

The  danger  in  the  use  of  poison  has  been  elsewhere  commented 


THE  RED  FOX  433 

upon.  Every  precaution  must  be  taken  to  keep  such  material 
away  from  children  or  adults  ignorant  of  its  qualities,  as  well  as 
from  animals  for  which  it  is  not  intended.  Strychnine  taken 
internally  by  man  or  animal  is  almost  instantly  fatal. 

The  Red  Fox. — This  animal  and  its  varieties,  the  cross  fox, 
silver  fox,  and  black  fox,  now  valuable  for  their  fur,  are  serious 
enemies  to  poultry-raising  in  the  less  settled  portions  of  the  country. 
This  is  largely  on  account  of  its  cunning.  The  genus  in  the  wild 
state  is  not  so  abundant  as  formerly.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the 
growth  of  the  fur-farming  industry  and  in  part  to  the  persecution 
to  which  these  animals  have  been  subjected. 

The  red  fox  has  been  known  to  kill  from  four  to  a  dozen  or 
more  chickens  in  one  visit  to  a  hen-house.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
weasel,  however,  the  animal  is  not  without  certain  redeeming 
qualities.  It  is,  for  example,  an  inveterate  enemy  of  field  mice, 
rabbits,  and  woodchucks. 

Description. — It  is  a  little  more  than  three  feet  long,  sometimes 
reaching  a  length  of  forty-four  inches.  Its  general  color  is  rusty 
red  or  golden  yellow,  legs  dark,  feet  black,  and  some  black  on  the 
back  part  of  the  ears,  under  parts,  breast,  and  lower  jaw  white. 
The  end  of  the  bushy  tail  is  black  with  white  tip. 

Habits. — They  mate  in  early  spring,  and  a  pair  with  young 
(four  to  eight  or  nine  hi  the  litter)  constitute  a  family,  the  male 
evidently  not  seeking  another  mate.  A  period  of  fifty-one  days 
elapses  between  mating  and  the  birth  of  the  young.  It  is  believed 
that  the  average  life  of  a  fox  is  from  eight  to  ten  years. 

The  writer  once  owned  a  red  female  fox  which  was  kept  near 
the  house,  in  the  orchard,  fastened  by  a  long  chain  and  furnished 
with  an  overturned  box  for  a  retreat  in  bad  weather  or  at  other 
times.  She  was  playful  in  the  extreme  and  gentle  as  a  kitten  when 
in  the  mood,  but  if  not  disposed  to  romp,  depressed  ears  and  opened 
jaws  which  could  close  with  lightning  rapidity  constituted  suffi- 
cient warning  to  leave  her  alone.  If  approached  when  eating 
she  would  first  snarl  at  the  intruder,  and  if  that  were  not  sufficient 
and  one  continued  to  approach,  she  would  defile  her  food  and  walk 
away.  It  is  known  that  a  fox  will,  under  certain  conditions,  make 
friends  with  dogs,  perhaps  for  reasons  of  self-preservation.  This 
may  have  been  the  case  with  the  above-mentioned  animal,  for 
frequently  fox  hounds  from  a  neighbor's  yard  would  gather  in 
the  orchard  where  this  animal  was  chained  and  evidently  indulge 
in  a  fox  " chase,"  much  to  the  disgust  of  members  of  the  family 


434      SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

who  slept  or  endeavored  to  sleep  on  that  side  of  the  house  next 
the  animals.  The  fox  was  never  injured  by  the  dogs. 

Control. — Skilful  methods  of  trapping,  calling  for  most  pains- 
taking efforts,  are  the  only  means  of  defense  on  the  part  of  the 
poultry  raiser.  Poultry  yards  of  modern  construction  reduce  the 
danger  of  attack. 

The  Weasel. — Various  species  of  weasel  occur  in  different 
parts  of  the  United  States.  All  are  wantonly  destructive  to  animal 
life,  as  many  a  poultry  raiser  will  attest.  An  entire  flock  of  poultry 
may  be  destroyed  by  a  weasel  in  a  single  night.  Weasels  also  are 
persistent  robbers  of  birds'  nests.  On  the  other  hand,  they  eat 
white-footed  mice  and  meadow  mice,  the  latter  animals  being 
pests  to  horticulture.  Weasels  are  fond  of  rats  and  mice  found 
about  farm  buildings,  and  are  enemies  of  rabbits.  Northern 
varieties  turn  white  in  winter,  the  tip  of  the  tail  alone  remaining 
black  as  in  summer. 

Loose  stone  walls,  piles  of  stone,  stumps,  hollow  trunks  of 
trees  or  burrows  formerly  occupied  by  other  animals,  are  favored 
retreats  for  the  weasel. 

About  forty  days  are  given  as  the  period  between  mating  and 
the  birth  of  the  young,  a  litter  numbering  about  four  to  eight. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  fox,  trapping  and  modern  buildings  appear 
to  be  the  best  methods  of  defense  available  to  the  poultry  raiser. 

The  red  squirrel  is,  in  its  varied  forms,  widely  distributed 
over  the  entire  United  States.  It  is  an  acknowledged  pest  indi- 
rectly on  account  of  its  habit  of  preying  upon  eggs  and  young  of 
birds,  most  of  which  are  useful  to  the  farmer  and  orchardist.  It 
also  reduces  the  yield  of  pine  seed  by  cutting  off  and  burying  the 
green  cones.  Maples  suffer  in  the  spring  from  the  attacks  of  red 
squirrels,  which  gnaw  holes  in  the  upper  side  of  larger  branches 
and  drink  the  sap  gathering  therein.  Trappers  complain  that  the 
red  squirrel  frequently  steals  bait  from  their  traps.  Evidence  is 
not  lacking  that  the  gray  squirrel  and  its  varieties  are  also,  to 
some  extent,  guilty  of  robbing  birds'  nests,  yet  they  are  not  so 
persistent  in  this  habit,  or  so  destructive  as  the  red  squirrel,  and 
in  most  localities  they  are  much  less  common  than  the  latter 
variety. 

The  Common  Skunk. — There  are  nine  known  species  of  skunks, 
but  the  data  given  are  for  the  most  common  and  well-known 
genus  (Mephitis),  and  are  practically  applicable  to  all  known 
North  American  species. 


THE  RACCOON  435 

Contrary  to  the  general  belief,  skunks  are,  on  the  whole, 
useful  to  the  farmer.  They  eat  grasshoppers,  tobacco  worms, 
army  worms,  white  grubs,  potato  beetles,  and  other  insects;  they 
also  feed  on  field  mice,  young  rabbits,  chipmunks,  etc.  They 
may  occasionally  take  bees,  which  depredation  the  bee-keeper 
can  easily  prevent  by  having  his  hives  sufficiently  high  above  the 
ground. 

In  times  of  scarcity  of  other  food,  individual  skunks  may 
acquire  the  habit  of  eating  poultry;  but  a  skunk  can  reach  only  a 
fowl  that  is  roosting  on  or  near  the  ground,  or  a  setting  hen  close 
to  the  ground.  Only  one  fowl  is  killed  at  a  time.  The  ordinary 
steel  trap  affords  an  easy  means  of  capturing  an  animal  which  has 
this  habit. 

The  fact  is  now  recognized  by  scientists  that  skunks  are  useful 
to  the  farmer.  Acknowledgment  of  this  usefulness  is  shown  in  the 
enactment  of  state  laws  protecting  skunks.  The  adaptability  of 
the  animals  to  fur-farming  projects  places  them  on  a  very  valuable 
footing. 

The  Raccoon. — This  clumsy  animal  has  a  gray  coat  and 
bushy  tail,  the  latter  barred  with  black.  It  weighs  from  ten  to 
twenty  pounds  or  more.  It  has  a  wide  range  over  the  entire 
United  States.  In  the  North  in  severe  whiter  weather  it  hiber- 
nates, coming  out  from  its  retreat  on  warm  days.  In  the  southern 
states  there  is  no  hibernation.  In  Florida  there  occurs  a  more 
yellowish  form. 

The  raccoon  prefers  a  retreat  among  rocks  or  a  hollow  tree  for 
its  residence.  It  is  frequently  injurious  to  corn  when  in  the  milk 
stage,  wantonly  destroying  much  more  than  it  needs.  It  also 
feeds  upon  insects,  grapes,  berries,  nuts,  crawfish,  and  occasionally 
catches  fish  swimming  in  shallow  streams.  It  also  preys  upon 
ground-nesting  birds,  and  even  robs  the  nests  of  birds  and  squirrels 
in  trees.  The  peculiarity  which  gave  it  its  scientific  name,  lotor, 
which  means  "a  washer,"  consists  in  its  always  washing  meat 
before  eating  it.  The  young  are  born  in  April  and  May,  four 
being  the  number  in  the  usual  litter. 

Negroes"in  the  southern  states  delight  in  "coon"  hunts,  and 
the  animal  is  easily  trapped.  The  flesh  is  used  for  human  food, 
having  a  resemblance  to  fat  pork.  There  is  much  demand  for  the 
fur  of  the  raccoon.  It  may  be  said  that  the  annual  kill  of  rac- 
coons in  North  America  amounts  to  something  like  four  million 
individuals. 


436     SOME  FOUR-FOOTED  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  life  history  of  hares  and  rabbits. 

2.  Enumerate  injuries  caused  by  the  cottontail  rabbit  and  give  methods  of 

prevention. 

3.  Describe  the  habits  of  pocket  gophers  and  the  construction  of  their  bur- 

rows.    What  methods  are  advised  for  extermination? 

4.  Describe  the  habits  of  the  common  mole,  and  the  kinds  of  food  it  uses. 

5.  What  economic  bearing  has  the  presence  of  birds  of  prey  and  weasels, 

foxes,  and  skunks  on  field  mice? 

6.  For  what  injurious  work  are  field  mice  responsible  and  how  are  they 

controlled? 

7.  What  methods  are  advocated  for  lessening  depredations  of  house  rats  and 

house  mice? 

8.  Give  life  history,  habits,  and  methods  of  control  of  the  ground  squirrels. 

9.  Describe  habits  of  prairie  dogs  and  their  control. 

10.  Give  methods  for  controlling  woodchuck  injury. 

11.  Describe  habits  of  the  common  skunk,  and  tell  of  its  relation  to  agriculture. 

12.  When  are  litters  of  young  produced,  and  how  many  in  a  litter  in  the  case 

of  the  cottontail  rabbit,  the   pocket    gopher,  the   so-called    "thirteen- 
lined  gopher,"  and  field  mice? 

13.  What  damage  is  charged  to  the  red  squirrel? 

14.  Why  should  raccoons  be  killed? 

15.  What  observations  have  you  made,  or  what  experiences  have  you  had 

with  four-footed  pest  of  the  farm. 


INDEX 

*  before  page  number  indicates  figure. 

A  Ant-lion,  15 

with  larvae.  *16 

Abbot  sphinx,  169  Ants  in  the  law'     256 

Abdomen,  13  Aphids  255 

Achemon  sphinx,  169  A£M     'beet   2Q1 
Agitators,  57  cabbage,  234 

Agrilus  anxius,  262  corn  leaf   2Q1 

bihneaus  275  root  2Q2 

rufico  Ihs,  140  u       367 

smuatus,  108  oranee    182 

Air-slaked  lime,  46  Aph™"™™ 
Alabama  argillacea,  223  brassier,  234 

Alceris  minuta,  86  forbesi,  134 

Alder  " blight,"  265  gossypii,  238 

Alfalfa,  bait  made  of,  43  maidi  radicis,  202 

caterpillar,  200  maiciis,  201 

insects  attacking,  196  mali,  82 

seed  chalcis  fly,  *197  persicce-niger,  125 

Allorhina  nitida,  125  rumicis,  242 

Alsophila  pometaria,  89  setarice,  121 

Alypia  octomaculata,  166  sor&i,  *130,  131 

American  procris,  162,  *164  Apple    branches,    broken    by    over- 
redstart,  384,  *384  bearing,  *75 
silkworm,  93                                                  curculio,  104,  *104 
tent  caterpillar,  *79,  132                             insects  injurious  to,  68 

egg  mass  of,  *80  supplementary  list  of,  106 

just  hatched,  *81  leaf  aphis,  82 

Ampelidse,  374  hopper,  83,*85,  123,  145,  152 

Ampelophagus  myron,  161  roller,  lesser,  86 

Amphicerus  bicaudatus,  155  skeletonizer,  97,  *97 

Anarsia  lineatella,  134  maggot,  105 

Anasa  armigera,  242  burrows  of,  *105 

tristis,  241  fly,  *105 

Ancylis  comptana,  136  Apple-bud  aphis,  83 
Angoumois  grain  moth,  208,  347,  *348      Apple-tree  borer,  flat-headed,  68 

carbon  bisulfid  for,  61  round-headed,  69 

Angular-winged  katydid,  *183,  184  caterpillar,  red-humped,  90 

Anisota  senatoria,  279  yellow-necked,  90 

Anomala,  light- loving,  160  tent  caterpillar,  78 

Anomala  luciola,  160  Apple-twig  borer,  132,  155,  *157 

marginata,  160  Ar chips  argyrospila,  95 
Anopheles,  304,  306  obsoletana,  136 

maculipennis,  307  parallella,  170 

Anthonomus  ceneotinidus,  250  rosaceana,  96 

grandis,  221  Army  worm,  203 
quadrigibbus,  104  wheat-head,  190 

signatus,  137  Arsenate  of  lead  paste,  41 
suturalis,  171  powdered,  42 

Anthrenus  serophularice,  292  Arsenic,  white,  40 

437 


438 


INDEX 


Arsenite  of  soda,  44 
Arthropoda,  11 
Arthropods,  11 
Ash-gray  pinion,  106 
Asparagus  beetle,  245,  *246 
Aspidiotus  ancylus,  74 

ficus,  174 

nerii,  174,  254 

perniciosus,  70 

rapax,  174,  254 
Asters,  lice  on  roots  of,  258 
Atropos,  301 
Attagenus  piceus,  293 

B 

Bacon  beetle,  297,  *297 
Bait,  acceptable,  28 

alfalfa,  43 

clover,  43 

for  sow  bugs,  44 

poisoned  grain,  44 

tarred  corn,  44 
Baiting,  28 
Baits,  poison,  43 
Balancers,  22 
Baltimore  oriole,  390 
Bamboo  extension,  *57 
Banded  hair-streak,  123 
Bands  of  burlap,  49 
Bark  beetles,  breeding  place  of,  *7 

fruit  beetle,  77 

louse,  127 
Barley,  212 

Barn  swallow,  403,  *404 
Barrel  pump,  *53 

portable,  *224 
with  cart,  *54 

spray  pump,  *52 

Basswood  defoliated  by  canker  worm, 
*88 

showing  galls,  *267 
Bean,  aphids,  242 

fly,  244 

maggot,  244 
fly,  *243 

weevil,  244,  *244 
Beans,  insects  affecting,  242 
Beautiful  hickory  beetle,  282 
Bedbug,  293,  *294 
Bee-fly,  *342,  343 

moth,  367,  *367 

injured  comb,  *343 
larva  of,  *342 

pinned,  *29 
Beet  aphis,  201 


Beets,  insects  attacking,  201 
Belted  kingfisher,  394,  *396 
Bembecina  marginata,  138 
Berries,  insect  pests  of,  133 
Birch-leaf  skeletonizer,  263 
Bird  houses,  408 

lice,  17 
Birds,  classification  of,  373 

crops  attacked  by,  409 

feeding  of,  409 

how  to  attract,  408 

how  to  study,  407 

observations  of,  407 

of  doubtful  utility,  495 

protection  of,  8 

field  crops  from,  410 

relation  of,  to  agriculture,  372 
Black  ant,  *256 

carpet  beetle,  *294 

flies,  310,  335 

control  of,  311,  335 

fly,  species  of,  *311 

peach  aphis,  125 
scale,  173,  *174 

tern,  404 
Blackberry  crown-borer,  138,  *139 

flea-louse,  145 

insects  attacking,  138 

supplementary  list  of,  145 

leaf  miner,  145 

psylla,  145 
Blackbird,  crow,  393 

habits  of,  392 

red-winged,  391,  *392 
Blatella  germanica,  295 
Blind-eyed  sphinx,  106,  123 
Blissus  leucopterus,  191 
Blister  beetles,  20,  198,  *199,*227,  245 

mite,  *110 

Blood-sucking  oscinis,  325,  *325 
Blow-fly,  335 
Bluebird,  379 
Bobolink,  390,  *391 
Bob-white,  401,  402 
Boll-weevil,  221,  *222 

losses  from,  1 
Boll-worm,  pink,  225 
Bolting-cloth  beetle,  353 
Bombyliid,  *367 
Book  lice,  301 
louse,  17 

Bordeaux,  dry,  60 
mixture,  42 
nozzle,  double,  *58 
Bot,  squeezing,  *321 


INDEX 


439 


Bot-fly,  eggs  of,  *315 

horse,  314,  *314 

red-tailed,  317 

sheep,  326 

Bots  in  stomach  of  horse,  *316 
Bottle  stand,  *33 
Box-elder  bug,  260,  *261 

gall-fly,  261 

galls  on,  *262 

plant  louse,  260 
Braconidce,  367 
Bran  mash,  poison,  43 
Branches,  broken,  5 

burning  of,  6 
Breeding  cage,  *35 

jar,  *35 

Breeze-flies,  328 

Broad- necked  Prionus,  106,  132,  169 
Broad  scale,  174,  *175 
Bronze  birch  borer,  262,  *264 
Brown  creeper,  382 

fruit  chafer,  105 

thrasher,  376 

thrush,  376,  *376 
Brown-tail  moth,  288 

caterpillar,  *289 

caterpillars,  young,  *290 

egg-clusters,  *289 

winter  nest  of,  *289 
Bruchus  obtectus,  244 « 

pisorum,  245 

Brucophagus  funebris,  196 
Bubalus  ceresa,  74 
Bucculatrix  canadensiella,  263 
Bucket  pump,  *52 
Bud  moth,  86,  98,  123 

worm,  208,  218 
Buffalo  bug,  292 

gnats,  310,  335 
"Buffalo  moth/'  292 
Buffalo  tree-hopper,  *74,  123 
Bug,  a  true,  *22 
Buhach,  46 
Bullock's  oriole,  390 
Bumble  flower  beetle,  123 
Buprestid  beetle,  *20 
Burlap,  bands  of,  49 
Burning  of  caterpillar  nests,  51 
Butcher  bird,  386 
Butterflies,  22 
By  turns  unicolor,  144 


Cabbage  aphis,  234 

bug,  harlequin,  235 


Cabbage  butterfly,  imported,  *230 

insects,  229 

louse,  234 

maggot,  232,  *232,  245 

maggots,  hibernating,  5 

plant  wilted  down,  *233 

plutella,  *230 

worm,  imported,  229 
Caddis  flies,  15 

fly,  metamorphosis  of,  *16 
Cadelle,  *352,  353 
Calandra  granaria,  346 

oryza,  347 

Calliphora  vomitoria,  335 
Canarsia  kammondi,  97 
Cane-borer,  red-necked,  139 
Canker  worm,  132 
fall,  89 
spring,  87 
Carbolic  acid,  47 
Carbon  bisulfid,  61 

how  to  use,  61 
Card  index,  38 

and  container,  *38 
Cardinal,  388 
Carpet  beetle,  292 

black,  293,  *293 
Carpocapsa  pomonella,  99 
Carpodacus  calif ornicus,  388 

purpureus,  388 

Carpoglyphus  passularum,  312 
Carrot  beetle,  247 

rust  fly,  247 

Carrots,  insects  injuring,  246 
Case- making  clothes  moth,  291 
Cassida  bivitata,  249 

nigripes,  249 
Catacola  ultronia,  120 
Cat-bird,  375,  *375 
Caterpillar,  22 

forest  tent,  80 

killed  by  bacterial  disease,  *370 

nests,  burning  of,  51 

parasites,  *367 

spiny  currant,  150 

tentless,  80 

yellow  bear,  160 
Cattle  louse,  *334 

tick,  339;  losses  from,  1 
Cecidomyia  negundinis,  261 
Cecropia  cocoon,  *83 

moth,  91,  *92 

silk  moth,  123 

silkworm,  132 
Cedar  waxwing,  385 


440 


INDEX 


Celery  caterpillar,  247 

enemies  of,  247 

insects  injuring,  246 
Ceresa  bubalus,  74 
Chaitophorus  negundinis,  260 
ChalcididcB,  367 
Chalepus  trachypgnus,  217 
Chermes  pinicorticis,  278 

pinifolice,  278 
"Cherry  bird,"  385 
Cherry  insects,  113 

supplementary  list  of,  132 

louse,  129 

slug,  112,  129 

on  leaf,  *129 

Cherry- leaf  beetle,  123,  *131,  132 
Cherry-tree  borer,  flat-headed,  127 

leaf-folder,  132 

scale,  106,  123,  127 

thecla,  123,  132 
Chestnut  borer,  *277 

two-lined,  275 
Chestnut- sided  warbler,  383 
Chickadee,  380,  *381 
Chicken  mite,  *339 

scab,  336,  *339 

on  fowl,  *338 
Chilo  plejadellus,  217 
Chinch  bug,  191 

diseased,  *192 

hibernating,  5 

losses  from,  1 

Chionaspis  furfurus,  73 

salicis,  272 

Chipping  sparrow,  387 
Chitin,  13 
Chrysalis,  *23,  24 
Chrysobothris  femoraia,  68 
Chrysomphalus  aurantica,  173 
Chrysomyia  macellaria,  321 
Chrysops,  329 
Cicada,  dog  day,  128 
Cicada  tibicen,  128 
Cicadids,  21 
Cigar  case-bearer,  86 
Cigarette  beetle,  299,  *299 
Cimbex  americana,  273 
Cimex  lectularius,  293 
Circular  scale,  174,  *177 
Citellus  franklinii,  *423 

richardsonii,  423 

tridecim-lineatus,  *408, 422 
Citronella,  oil  of,  307 
Citrus  fruits,  principal  insects  affect- 
ing, 173 
Clastoptera  proteus,  171 


Claws,  13 
Clean  farming,  5 
Cleaning  up,  5 
Click  beetles,  206,  *206 
Clothes-moth,  *292 

larva,  *292 

webbing,  292 
Clothilla,  301 
Clover,  bait  made  of,  43 

early  cutting  of,  8 

hay  worm,  198 

insects  attacking,  196 

root-borer,  197 
Clover-seed  chalcid,  8,  196 
Coccotorus  scutellaris,  122 
Coccus  hesperidum,  174 
Coccyges,  373 

Cockroaches,  18,  295,  *296 
Cockscomb  gall,  266,  *266 
Codling  moth,  *1,  99,  *100,  127 
larva,  *100 
losses  from,  1 
spraying  for,  *102 
time  for  spraying,  *101 
Coleophora  fletcherella,  86 
Collecting  insects,  25,  28 
Colopha  ulmicola,  266 
Colorado  pptato  beetle,  *227 
Combined  insecticide  and  fungicide, 

42 

Compound  eye,  *13 
Comstock  bottle,  *33 
Confused  flour  beetle,  310,  349,  *351 
Conotrachelus  cratcegi,  112 

nenuphar,  101 
Contact  insecticides,  44 
Cooperation,  9 
Coptocycla  bicolor,  249 

signifer,  249 
Corn  between  glass  plates,  *35 

bill  bugs,  209,  *209 

ear  worm,  210,  218 

insects  affecting,  201 

leaf  aphis,  201,  *202 

root  aphis,  202 

tarred,  44 

worm,  217 

Southern,  208,  240 
Western,  203 
Corrodentia  order,  17 
Corvidce,  374 
Cotton  boll-weevil,  221,  *222 

boll-worm,  218,  223 

plant,  *223 

insects  affecting,  221 

root-louse,  225 


INDEX 


441 


Cotton  stainer,  182,  *182,  225 

worm,  223 
Cottontail,  413 
Cottonwood  leaf  beetle,  274,  *275 

scale,  272 
Cottony  cushion  scale,  174,  *175 

maple  scale,  106,  152,  169    287, 

*287 
Covering  of  plants,  50 

of  seed  beds,  50 
Coxa,  13 
Cranberry  fruit  worm,  171,  *171 

insects  injurious  to,  169 

leaf  folder,  169 

roller,  170,  *170 

spittle  insect,  170 

weevil,  171,  *171 

worm,  yellow,  170 
Craponius  incequalis,  168 
Creptopogon,  312 
Cresphontes  butterfly,  179,  *180 

larva  of,  *179 
Crickets,  18,  250,  294 
Crioceris  asparagi,  245 
Croton  bugs,  295 
Crows,  poisoning,  410 

shooting,  411 
Crude  oil  emulsion,  45 
Crustacea,  11 

Cryptorhynchus  lapathi,  274 
Ctenocephalus  canis,  308 
Cuckoo,  yellow-billed,  395 
Cucumber  beetle,  striped,  *237 

flea  beetle,  106,  239,  *240 

moth,  neat,  240 

Cucumbers,  insects  attacking,  237 
Culex  pipiens,  306 
Culicidce,  329 
Cultivation,  intensive,  8 
Curculio,  grape,  168 
Curlew  bugs,  209 
Currant  borer,  *146 

imported,  145 

caterpillar,  *151 

fruit  fly,  152 
worm,  152 

insects,    supplementary    list   of, 
152 

leaves  with  lice,  *149 

plant  louse,  149 

scale,  152 

worm,  imported,  146 

native,  148 
Currants,  insects  injurious  to,  145 

with  gooseberry  fruit  worm,  *153 
Cut- worms,  250 


Cut-worms,  well-marked,  97 
Cyanide  bottle,  25 

home-made,  *26 
Cyclone  sprayer,  60 
Cylas  formicarius,  249 
Cyllene  picta,  283 
robinice,  275 
Cynomys  ludovidanus,  432 

D 

Dactylopius  destructor,  252 

longifilis,  253 
Damsel  flies,  15 
Datana  angusii,  282 

ministra,  90 
"Death  watch,"  298 
Deilephila  lineata,  162 
Dendroctonus  terebrans,  277 

ponderosce,  *2 
Dermacentor  venustis,  340 
Dermestes  lardarius,  297 
Destructive  mealy  bug,  252,  *252 
Diabrotica  longicornis,  203 

12-punctata,  208,  217,  240,  *241 

vittata,  237 

Diacrisia  virginica,  160 
Diamond-back  moth,  237 
Diaphania  nitidalis,  240 
Dicerca  divaricata,  117 
Dicyphus  minimus,  219 
Differences  among  insects,  11 
Digger  squirrels,  421 
Diptera,  22,  367 
Disease,  bacterial,  371 
Disonycha  xanthomeloena,  213 
Dissecting  needles,  30 
Distillate  emulsion,  45 
Ditches,  50 

Divaricated  buprestis,  117,  *117,  127 
Dog  day  cicada,  128,  *128 
Dominican  case-bearer,  123 
Dormant  spray  on  orchards,  *8 
Double-acting  pump,  *53 
Double-eyed  sphinx,  123 
Downy  woodpecker,  *397 
Dragon  flies,  15 

fly,  nymph  and  pupal  skin,  *17 
Drill  worm,  208 
Drug  store  beetle,  298 
Dust  furrows,  50 

sprayers,  59 

spraying,  47 
Dust-proof  box,  37 
Dust-sprayer,  hand,  *47 

large,  *48 
Dysdercus  suturellus,  182 


442 


INDEX 


Earwigs,  17,  *18 

Ecdysis,  12 

Economic  entomologists,  work  of,  1 

Egg,  14 

cluster  of  gipsy  moth,  *288 

plant  insects,  251 
Eight-spotted  forester,  166,  *167 
Eiaphidion  villosum,  281 
Elateridce,  207 
Elevator  insects,  345 
Elm  borer,  268,  *269 
Elm-leaf  aphis,  285 

beetle,  268,  *268 
Emperor  moth,  106 
Empoasca  mali,  83 
Empria  maculata,  137 
Emulsion  crude  oil,  45 

distillate,  45 
English  grain  louse,  187 
Entomologists,  work  of,  1,  4 
Envelope  for  butterflies,  *38 
Ephemerida  order,  15 
Ephestia  kuehniella,  345 
Epicauta,  226 

pennsylvanica,  199 
Epitrix  cucumeris,  239 

sp.,  228 

Epochra  canadensis,  152 
Erannis  tiliaria,  284 
Eriocampoides  limacina,,  129 
Eriophyes  pyri,  110 
Erratic  army  worm,  *205 
Eulecanium  cerasifex,  127 

sp.,  117 

Euphoria  inda,  106 
Euplexoptera  order,  17 
Euproctus  chrysorrhea,  289 
European  fruit  eulecanium,  127 

sparrow,  405 
Eurymus  eurythene,  200 
Euthrips  citri,  182 

pyri,  111 

Euvanessa  antiopa,  283 
Euzophora  semifuneralis,  117 
Exoskeleton,  13 
Extension  rod,  54 
External  structure  of  insects,  11 
Eye-spotted  bud-moth,  106,  132,  145 
Eyed  elater,  106 


Fall  canker  worm,  89,  *89,  123 

web  worm,  123,  132,  265,  *265 
False  chinch  bug,  106,  138,  169 
"False  gid,"  326 


False  tarnished  plant  bug,  112 

Families  of  insects,  24 

Farm  practices  to  lessen  injuries,  5 

products,  1 

Fasciated  lithacodes,  106 
Feather  lice,  control  of,  339 

of  fowls,  338 
louse,  *339 
Femur,  13 
Fence  rows,  5 
Fertilization,  heavy,  8 
Fidia  viticida,  154 
Field  crops,  insects  affecting,  185 
mice,  425 

cultivation  to  control,  428 
destroying  by  burning,  428 
fumigation  for,  428 
guards  against,  427 
hibernating,  5 
increase  in,  8 
injuries  caused  by,  426 
losses  from,  4 
poisoning,  427 
protection  against,  427 
washes  to  keep  off,  427 
Fig  eater,  127,  132 
Fish  moth,  14,  *15,  300 
Flat-headed    apple-tree    borer,    *68, 

123 

cherry-tree  borer,  127 
"Flaxseeds,"  185 
Flea,  dog  and  cat,  22 
human,  22,  *308 
Flea-beetle,  213 

cucumber,  239,  250 
garden,  228 
rhubarb,  249 
striped,  235 
Flea-beetles,  245,  250 
Flea-like  negro-bug,  138,  145 
Fleas,  control  of,  309 
Flesh-fly,  323,  368 
Flicker,  403 
Flies,  poisoned,  303 
Flour  beetle,  310 
moth,  *346 

control  of,  345 
fumigation  of,  353 
Flower  garden,  insect  enemies  of,  252, 

255 
Forceps,  *25,  31 

for  pinning  insects,  *31 
heavy,  *31 
Forest  products,  1 

tent  caterpillar,  80,  82,  132 
on  bark,  *83 


INDEX 


443 


Forests  invite  insect  attacks,  *2 
Formaldehyde,  61 
Four-footed  pests,  413 
Four-lined  leaf-bug,  148,  *148 
Fox,  control  of,  434 

red,  433 
Foxes,  9 

depredators,  9 
Franklin's  rosy  gull,  404 
FringillidcE,  374 
Frit-fly,  189,  *190 
Fruit  bark  beetle,  77,  *114 

chafer,  brown,  105 
Fruit- tree  bark  beetle,  114 
Fuma,  61 

Fumigating  granaries  and  grain-bins, 
63 

houses,  63 

scions,  62 
Fumigation,  61 

of  citrus  trees,  177 

of  greenhouses,  64 
Fungicide,  42 


Gad-flies,  328 
Galerucella  cavicolis,  132 

luteola,  268 
Gall  louse  on  red  elm,  *267 

vagabond,  271 
Galleria  mellonella,  343 
GallincB,  373 
Galls  on  maple,  *263 
Garden  truck,  protection  of,  409 
Gastrophilus  equi,  314 

hcemorroidalis,  317 

nasalis,  317 
Genera,  24 

Ginseng,  insects  attacking,  248 
Gipsy  moth,  288,  *288 

appropriation  for,  4 
caterpillar,  *288 
Girdled  trees,  418 
Glass  slide  with  labels,  *32 
Glassy  cut-worm,  138 
Goat-moth,  106,  279 
Goes  pulchra,  282 
"Golden  bugs,"  249 
Golden-eyed  lace-winged  fly,  15 
Golden-glow,  lice  on.  255 
Golden  plover,  403,  *403 
Goniocotes  burnettii,  339 

hologaster,  339 

Gooseberries,  insects  injurious  to,  145 
Gooseberry  fruit  worm,  152,  *152 


Gooseberry    insects,    supplementary 

list  of,  152 
Gopher,  9 

gun,  419,  *420 

pocket,  419,  *419 

striped,  421 

"thirteen- lined,"  421 
Gophers,  ditches  for,  420 

losses  from,  4 

poisoning,  420 

trapping,  419 
Goshawk,  399 
Grain,  treating  in  bins,  61 
Granary  weevil,  346,  *348 

control  of,  346 
Grape-berry  moth,  168,  *168 
Grape-cane-borer,  155 
stages  of,  *157 

curculio,  168,  *168 

flea-beetle,  123 

insect  pests  of,  133,  154 

insects,    supplementary    list    of, 
169 

leaf  skeletonizer,  162 

plume  moth,  169 
Grape-root  worm,  154 

stages  of,  *154 
Grape-vine  flea-beetle,  155,  *156 

hog  caterpillar,  161 

leaf  folder,  169 

hoppers,  164,  *165 
sewer,  169 

phylloxera,  157,  *159 
Grasses,  212 
Grasshopper,  *19 

dissection  of,  *12 

killed  by  fungus,  *371 

lubber,  184 

ovipositing,  *103 
Grasshoppers,  18,  20,  193,  364 

spraying  for,  *195 
Gray  dagger  moth,  106,  123,  132 
"Gray  gophers,"  421 
Gray  rabbit,  413 
Greasy  cut-worm,  138 
Greedy  scale,  174,  254 

on  orange,  *178 
Green- bottle  fly,  335 
"Green  bug,"  189,  *189 

winged  migrant  form,  *189 
Green  cabbage  worms,  257 
Greenhead  fly,  328 
Greenhouse,  equilateral  roof,  *64 

fumigation  of,  64 

insect  enemies  of,  252 

with  unequal  roof,  65 


444 


INDEX 


Green  June  beetle,  125 
Ground  beetle,  *20,  138,  *364 

hog,  430 

hogs,  controlling,  431 

squirrel,  421,  *423 
gray,  *423 

squirrels,  control  of,  422 

losses  from,  4 
Grub,  326 
Gryllus,  294 

H 

Hag-moth  caterpillar,  106 
Halteres,  22 
Haltica  chalybea,  155 
Ham  beetle,  297,  *297 
Hand  dust  sprayer,  *47 

lens,  *32 

Handling  butterflies,    *28 
Hand-picking,  51 
Hare,  Belgian,  413 
Hares  and  rabbits,  413 
Harlequin  cabbage  bug,  235 
Harpalus  caliginosus,  138 

pennsylvanicus,  138 
Harrissima  americana,  162 
Harvest  flies,  21 

mite,  309,  *309 
Hawk,  cooper's  399 

marsh,  399 

moth,  sweet  potato,  250 

sharp  shinned,  399 

sparrow,  400 
Hawks,  399 

and  owls,  8 
Hay  crop,  losses  in,  1 
Head,  12 

Hearing,  sense  of,  13 
Heated  rooms  to  kill  insects,  67 
Heating  mill,  347 
Heel  fly,  *320 
Heliophila  unipuncta,  203 
Heliothis  obsoleta,  223 
Hellebore,  43 
Hemiptera  order,  21 
Hcrodines,  373 
Hessian  fly,  185,  369 

destruction  by,  *3 
losses  from,  1 
on  wheat  plant,  *185 
Heterocampa  leucostignia,  269 
Heteroptera,  sub-order,  21 
Hexapoda,  11 
Hibernating  quarters,  5 
Hickory  borer,  beautiful,  282 

painted,  283 


Hippobosca  ovinus,  332 

Hog  caterpillar  of  grape,  *161 

louse,  *334 
Hogs  in  orchard,  9 
Homoptera,  21 
Hop  plant  louse,  123,  214 
Hopperdozer,    construction    of,    194, 
*194 

removing  grasshoppers,  *51 

working,  *50 
Hopperdozers,  50 
Hornets,  metamorphosis  of,  *21 
Horn-flies  on  cow,  *324 
Horn-fly,  323 

control  of,  324 
Horse  bot-fly,  314 

control  of,  315 

chestnut     injured    by     tussock 
moth,  *272 

flies,  22,  328 

fly,  control  of,  329 
Hose  rod,  54 
Hot  water,  47 
House  fleas,  308 

fly,  22,  *22,  301,  *303 

plants,  insect  enemies  of,  252 

wren,  *382 

Household,  insects  affecting,  291 
Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  61,  62 
Hylastinus  obscurus,  197 
Hylopterus  arundinis,  118 
Hymenoptera  order,  20 
Hyperchiria  io,  128 
Hyperparasitism,  369 
Hyphantria  cunea,  265 
Hypoderma,  318 

bovis,  319 

lineata,  319 
Hypospygia  costalis,  198 


I  eery  a  purchasi,  174 

Ichneumon  parasites,  *366 

IchneumonidcR,  367 

IcteridoB,  374 

Imbricated  snout  beetle,  106,  138 

Imported  cabbage  worm,  229 

currant-borer,  145 

currant  worm,  *147 
Incomplete  metamorphosis,  18 
Index,  card,  38 
Indian  cetonia,  *106 

euphoria,  106,  169 

meal  moth,  349 
Inflating  caterpillars,  32 

larvae,  apparatus  for,  *34 


INDEX 


445 


Injury  to  corn  plant,  *210 
Insect  friends,  364 

life,  stages  of,  12 

typical  leg  of,  13 
Insect-proof  box,  37 
Insecticide  combined  with  fungicide, 

42 
Insecticides,  40 

contact,  44 

for  sucking  insects,  44 

proprietary,  43 
Insects,  11 

affecting  corn,  201 
sugar-cane,  201 

biting,  40 

collecting  and  preserving,  25 

definition  of,  11 

differences  among,  1 1 

diseases  of,  369 

external  structure  of,  1 1 

indirectly    beneficial,    364,    367, 
369 

killing  special,  27 

loss  to  agriculture  through,  1 

metamorphosis  of,  11 

observations  of,  34 

orders  of,  11,  14 

predaceous,  364 

products  of,  369 

storing  and  mailing,  37 

sucking,  40 

water,  28 

where  to  look  for,  28 
Insessores,  373 

lo  emperor  moth,  123,  128,  152 
Isoptera  order,  16 
Isosoma,  196 
Itch-mite,  *337 

of  man,  *336 
Ithycerus  noveboracensis,  78 


Jack-rabbits,  driving,  416 

shooting,  416 
Jarring,  28 

trees,  51 
''  Jigger,"  309 
"Jigger  flea,"  309 
Jiggers,  control  of,  310 
Joint  worms,  196 
June  bug,  84,  123,  *211 

K 

Katydid,  *19 

angular-winged,  184 
Katydids,  18 


Kerosene  emulsion,  45 
Killing  bottle,  *26 
Kil-O-Scale,  125 
King  bird,  393 
Knapsack  sprayer,  *52,  59 


Labels,  *30 

Labial  palps,  12 

Labium,  12 

Labrum,  12 

Lace-winged  fly,  *366,  367 

Lachnosterna,  247 

"Lady  beetles,"  175,  364,  *365 

"Ladybirds,"  175,367 

Lantern  traps,  49,  *49 

Larch  saw-fly,  285,  *285 

Larva,  14 

inflated,  *34 
Larvae,  rearing,  33 
Lasioderma  serricorne,  299 
Lasius  niger  americanus,  202 
Leaf  bugs,  259 

crumpler,  98,  123,  132 

hoppers,  21 

grape-vine,  164 

roller,  *95 

apples  scarred  by,  *96 
fruit  tree,  95 
larva  of,  *95 
oblique-banded,  96 
obsolete-banded,  136 
work  of,  *95 

Lecanium  nigrofasdatum,  124 
Lecanium  scale  on  plum,  *117 
Leg  of  typical  insect,  13 
Lepidoplera  order,  22 
Lepidosaphes  beckii,  174 

ulmi,  72 

Leptinotarsa  decemlineata,  226 
Leptocorisa  trivittata,  260 
Leptus  irritans,  309 
Lice,  334 

bird,  17 

book,  17 

on  currant  leaves,  *149 

plant,  14 

true,  21 

Light-loving  anomala,  160 
Lights,  29 
Ligyrus  gibbosus,  247 

rugiceps,  202 
Lime,  air- slaked,  46 

sulphur,  45 

wash,  72 
Lime-tree  winter  moth,  106,  284,  *284 


446 


INDEX 


Lime  with  Paris  green,  41 
Lipeurus  variabilis,  339 
Liquid  spraying,  47 
Lissorhoptus  simplex,  215 
Little  red  ant,  299 
Lixus  concavus,  248 
Locust,  *19 

borer,  275 

dissection  of,  *12 

tree  injured  by  locust  borer,  *276 
Locusts,  18,  20 
London  purple,  42 
Long-horned  prominent,  123,  144 

moth,  145,  *163 
Long  scale,  174,  *176 
Loss  to  agriculture,  1 
Louse,  cabbage,  234 

English  grain,  187 

vagabond  gall,  271 
Lubber  grasshopper,  184 
Lucilia  cornicina,  335 
Luna  moth,  282 
Lygaconenatus  erichsonii,  285 
Lygus  invitis,  112 

pratensis,  84 
Lyperosia  irriians,  323 

M 

Macrobasis  unicolor,  198 
Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  156 
Macrosiphum  granaria,  187 

pisi,  245 
Maggot,  22 
Magnifying  glass,  31 
Maia  moth,  106 
Mailing  box,  *37 

insects,  37 
Malacosoma  americana,  78 

district,  80 

Mallophaga,  17,  338 
Man,  insects  affecting,  291 
Mandibles,  12 

Mange-mite,  control  of,  336 
Mange-mites,  *336 
Maple  scale,  cottony,  287 

trees  infested  with  cottony  maple 

scale,  *286 

Margaropus  annulatus,  340 
Marmot,  430 

Maryland  yellow-throat,  383 
Maxillce,  12 

May  beetle,  20,  84,  *211 
eggs  of,  *212 

flies,  15 
May-fly,  *15 
Mayetiola  destructor,  185 


Meadow  lark,  389 
Meal  snout  moth,  349 
Mealy  bug,  *253 

destructive,  252 

with  long  threads,  253,  *253 

bugs,  174 

on  orange,  *178 

flata,  169 
Meat-fly,  335 
Mechanical  measures  against  insects, 

49 

Mecoplera  order,  15 
Mediterranean  flour  moth,  345 
Melasoma  scripta,  274 
Meliana  albilinea,  190 
Melon  leaves  with  lice,  *239 

louse,  238 

Melons,  insects  attacking,  237 
Melophagus  orinus,  332 
Membrane-winged,  20 
Menopon  pallidum,  339 
Mephitis,  434 
Meromyza  americana,  187 
Mesothorax,  13 
Metamorphosis,  11 

incomplete,  18 
Metathorax,  13 
Mice — See  Field  mice 
Mice,  9 

field,  425,  *426 

house,  428 

Microcentrum  retinervis,  184 
Microlepidoptera,  mounted,  *30 
Microscopic  insect  mounted,  *31 
Migrants,  14 
Mill  fumigation,  345 

insects,  345 

fumigation  of,  353 
Mineola  indigenella,  98 
Mite  causing  foot-mange,  *337 
Mites,  11,  312 
Mniotiltida;,  374 
Mocking-bird,  378 
Mole,  common,  424,  *424 

trap,  *425 

trapping,  424 

Monomorium  pharaonis,  299 
Monophadnus,  143 
Mosquito,  22,  *304 

house,  306 

larva,  *307 

yellow  fever,  *305 
Mosquitoes,  304,  329 

appropriations  for,  4 

control  of,  307,  330 

life  history  of,  *306 


INDEX 


447 


Moth,  goat,  279 

a  small,  *29 
Moths,  22 

Mottled  plum-tree  dagger  moth,  106, 
119 

willow  borer,  *275 
Moult,  12 

Mounding  injured  trees,  427 
Mounting  and  inflating  caterpillars, 
32 

on  pith,  31 
Mourning-cloak,  283 

butterfly,  *286 
Mourning  dove,  402,  *402 
Mulching,  6 

Murgantia  histrionica,  235 
Musca  domestica,  301 
Myriapoda,  11 
Myrtle  warbler,  382,  *383 
Mytilaspis  gloveri,  174 
Myzus  cerasi,  129 

ribis,  149 

N 

Naked  snails,  259 
Naphthaline  cones,  37,  *37 
Neat  cucumber  moth,  240 
Nematus  ventralis,  274 
Net,  beating,  27 

convenient  collecting,  *27 

serviceable,  20 
Neuroptera  order,  15 
Neuroterus  saltatorius,  281 
New  York  weevil,  78,  *78 
Nicofume,  46 
Night  collecting.  28 

hawk,  393,  394,  *395 
Noctua  clandestina,  97 
North  American  fever  tick,  *340 

life  cycle  of,  341 
Northern  shrike,  386 
"No-see-um,"  312,  *312 
Nozzle,  54 
Nozzles,  *58 

types,  *59 

Nursery  stock,  fumigating,  62 
Nut-hatch,  white-breasted,  381 


Oak  pruner,  106,  132,  281,  *281 
Oberea  bimaculata,  139 
Oblique-banded  leaf-roller,   96,   *97, 

123,  138,  145,  152 
Observations,  34 
Odonata  order,  15 


(Ecanthus  fasdat  us,  140 

niveus,  140 
Estrida,  328 
CEstrus  ovis,  326 
Oil  barriers,  50 

of  citronella,  307 
Okra,  insects  attacking,  251 
Oncideres  cingulatus,  282 
Onion  maggot,  *213 

maggots,  213 

pests  of,  213 

thrips,  213 
Orange  aphis,  182 

basket  worm,  184 

"dog,"  179 

scale,  173 

thrips,  182 

Orange-striped  oak  worm,  145,  279 
Orchard,  hogs  in,  9 

neglected,  5 

oriole,  390 
Orders,  11 

of  insects,  14 
Oregon  robin,  375 
Oriole,  Baltimore,  390 

Bullock's,  390 

orchard,  390 
Orthoptera,  13,  17 
Osdnis  sp.,  189 

pallipes,  325 

soror,  325 
Ovipositor,  13 

Owl,  great-horned,  *392,  402 
Owls,  8,  399 
Ox,  bot-fly,  318 
Oyster-shell  bark-louse,  123 

scale,  72,  *72 


Pacific  peach-tree  borer,  123 
Pcecilocapsus  lineatus,  148 
Palecrita  vernata,  87 
Palmer  worm,  101 
Pandorus  sphinx,  169 
Papaipema,  248,  256 

nitela,  212,  *258 
Papilio  cresphontes,  179 

polyxenes,  247 
Parasites,  secondary,  368 

tertiary,  368 
Parasitic  insects,  368 
Parcopsylla  penelrans,  309 
Parate/374 
Paris  green,  40   . 

under  microscope,  *41 
Parsley  butterfly,  *23 


INDEX 


Parsnip  leaf-miner,  246 

web-worm,  246 

Parsnips,  insects  injuring,  246 
Parthenogenesis,  14 
Parts  of  a  typical  insect,  12 
Pasturage,  insects  affecting,  185 
Pea,  aphis,  245 

weevil,  *244,  245 
Peas,  insects  affecting,  242 

lice  on,  255 
Peach  bark  beetle,  exit  holes  of,  *116 

insects,  113 

supplementary  list  of,  127 

lecanium,  124 

saw-fly,  127 

sting,  125 

twig-borer,  124,  *124 
Peach-tree  bark  beetle,  *115,  116 

borer,  113,  *114 
Pacific,  123 
Peanuts,  injuries  due  to  insects,  217 

stored,  217 

Pear  blight  beetle,  106,  110,  *111,  116 
in  poplar  twig,  *111 

insects,  108 

psylla,  *109 

slug,  112,  129 

thrips,  111,  127 
Pear-leaf  blister-mite,  110 
Pear-tree  psylla,  108 
Pegomyia   sp.,  244 

brassicce,  232 

ceparum,  213 
Pemphigus  betce,  201 

tessellata,  265 

ulmifusus,  267 

vagabundus,  271 
Pepper  plant  insects,  250 

weevil,  250 

Peronea  oxycoccana,  169 
Persian  insect  powder,  46 
Petri  dish,  *302 
Phanurus  tabanivorus,  329 
Phlegethontius  sexta,  218 
Phthorimcea  opercucella,  228 
Phyllotreta  vittata,  235 
Phylloxera,  grape-vine,  157 
Phylloxera  vascatrix,  157 
Phytoptus,  182 
Picarice,  373 
Pickle  worm,  240 
Pine  bark  aphid,  278,  *278 

chermes,  injury  by,  *279 

leaf  scale,  278 
Pink  boll-worm,  225 
Pinning,  29 


Pinning  beetle,  *29 
forceps,  31 
grasshopper,  *29 
true  bug,  *30 
Pissodes  strobi,  277 
Plant  lice,  14,  21,  255 
Plant-louse,  currant,  149 
Planting,  early  or  late,  8 
Plants,  covering  of,  50 

resistant,  8 
Plecoptera  order,  16 
Plodia  inter punctella,  349 
Plum  curculio,  101,  *104,  *122,  123 

127 

gall-mite,  110,  118 
work  of,  *118 
geometer,  123 
gouger,  *121,  122 
insects,  113 

supplementary  list  of,  123 
louse,  rusty-brown,  121 
scale,  117 

Plum-leaf  aphis,  118 
Plum-tree  borer,  114 

American,  117 
catacola,  120,  *120 
dagger-moth,  mottled,  119 
sphinx,  119,  *119 
Plume  moth,  250 
Plutella  maculipennis,  237 
Pocket  gopher,  9 

burrow  of,  *421 
outline  of  head,  *420 
gophers,  419 
Poison  baits,  43 

spray  for  grasshoppers,  194 
Poisoned  bran  mash,  195 

grain,  44 

Poisons,  internal,  40 
Polychrosis  viteana,  168 
Polygonia  comma,  150 
Polyphemus  moth,  *94 

caterpillar  of,  *94 
Pomace  flies,  368 
Pontia  rapce,  229 
Potato  beetle,  20,  *227 
Colorado,  226 
bug,  20 

insects,  212,  226 
showing  work   of    potato-tuber 

moth,  *228 
tuber-moth,  228 

details  9f  work  of,  *228 
Poultry,   insect-like  animals  attack- 
ing, 314 
mite,  337 


INDEX 


449 


Porthetria  dispar,  288 
Power-spraying,  outfit  for,  *56 
Prairie  dogs,  432 

control  of,  432 
losses  from,  4 
Preserving  bottle,  31 

insects,  25 

Prionoxystes  robinice,  279 
Pristophora  gossularice,  148 
Proctotrypidce,  367 
Pro-legs,  22 
Prop-legs,  22 
Protection  of  birds,  8 
Prothorax,  13 
Pruning,  6 
Pseudococcus,  174 
Psila  rosce,  247 
Psoroptes  communis,  330 
Psylla  pyricola,  108 
Psylliodes  punctulata,  249 
Pteronus  ribesii,  146 
Ptinusfur,  299 
Pulex  irritans,  308 
Pulvillus,  13 

Pulvinaria  innumerabilis,  287 
Punch,  *31 
"Punkie,"  312,  *312 
Pupa,  14 
Puparia  of  Hessian  fly  in  wheat  stems, 

*186 

Puparium,  22 
Purblind  sphinx,  132 
Purple  finch,  388 

grackle,  393 

martin,  403 

scale,  174,  *176 
Putnam  scale,  74,  123 
Pyralis  farinalis,  349 
Pyramidal  grape-vine  caterpillar,  1C>9 
Pyrethrum,  46 

Q 

Quail,  *401 

Virginia,  402 

Quaternary  parasites,  369 
Quince  curculio,  112 

insects,  108 

R 

Rabbit,  cotton-tail,  *414 

guards,  416 
Rabbits,  9 

enemies  of,  414 

fencing  against,  417 

injurious  work  of,  414 

nest  of  young,  *415 
29 


Rabbits,  poisoning,  415 

repellent  washes  against,  416 

trapping,  417 
Raccoon,  435 

Radishes,  insects  affecting,  245 
Raptores,  373 
Raspberry  byturus,  *145 

cane-borer,  139 

fruit-worm,  144 

geometer,  145 

insects  attacking,  138 

supplementary  list  of,  145 

leaf-roller,    145 

root-borer,  138,  *139 

saw-fly,  143 
Rat,  brown,  428 

Norway,  428 
Rats,  428 

control  of,  429 

extermination  of,  429 
Rearing  larva;,  33 
Records,  keeping,  38 
Red  ant,  *300 

little,  299 
Red-bird,  388 
Red-eyed  vireo,  386 
Red  fox,  433 

scale,  173,  *173 

spider,  143,  151,  215,  221 

work  of,  *224 
Red-humped    apple-tree    caterpillar, 

90,  *90 

Red-necked  cane-borer,  139,  *140 
Red-shouldered  simoxylon,  169 
Red-tailed  bot-fly,  318 
Red- winged  black-bird,  391 
Relaxing  dried  specimens,  36 

insects,  *35 
Reproduction,  agamic,  14 

in  insects,  14 
Resistant  plants,  8 

stock,  8 

Resplendent  shield-bearer,  106 
Rhagoletis  pomonella,  105 
Rhubarb  curculio,  248 

flea-beetle,  249 

insects,  248 
Ribbed  scale,  174 
Rice  grub,  217 

insects,  215 

root-maggot,  215 

stalk  borer,  217 

water  weevil,  215,  *216 

weevil,  347,  *348 
Road  dust,  47 
Robin,  374 


450 


INDEX 


Robin,  Western  variety  of,  375 
Rocky  Mountain  locust,  18 

spotted  fever  tick,  340,  342, 

*343 
Rodents,  loss  to  agriculture,  1 

stop  in  time,  9 
Romalea  microptera,  184 
Rose  chafer,  123,  156,  *158,  258 

leaf  hopper,  106 
Rose-breasted  grosbeak,  387 
Roses,  lice  on,  255 
Rotation,  6 

Round-headed  apple-tree  borer,  *69 
Rust  mite,  182 
Rustic  borer,  280 
Rusty-brown  plum  louse,  121 

tortrix,  138 
Rye  insects,  212 


Saddle-backed  caterpillar,  152 

Saissetia  oleoe,  173 

Samia  cecropia,  91 

San  Jose  scale,  70,  *71,  123,  132,  152 

Sanninoidea  exitiosa,  113 

opalescens,  113,  123 
Saperda  Candida,  69 

tridentata,  268 

Sapsucker,  yellow-bellied,  397,  *398 
Sarcophaga,  323 
Sarcoptes  scabiei,  336 
Saw-flies,  250 
Saw-fly,  willow,  273 
Saw-toothed  grain  beetle,  350,  *352 
Scab-mite,  330,  *331 
Scale,  black,  173 

broad,  174 

circular,  174 

cottonwood,  272 

cottony  cushion,  174 

greedy,  174 

insects,  21 

remedies  for,  175 

long,  174 

oyster-shell,  72 

plum,  117 

purple,  174 

Putnam,  74 

ribbed,  174 

San  Jose",  70,  *71,  123,  132,  152 

scurfy,  73,  *73,  123 

soft  orange,  174 

terrapin,  124 

white,  174 

yellow,  173 
Scale- winged,  22 


Scalecide,  125 
Scarecrows,  411 
Scarlet  tanager,  389 
Schistocerus  hamatiLS,  155 
Schizoneura  americana,  285 

lanigera,  77 
Schizura  concinna,  90 

ipsomoece,  144 
Schmidt  insect  box,  *36 
Scions,  fumigating,  62 
Scolytus  rugulosus,  114 
Scorpion  flies,  15 
Scorpions,  11 
Screw- worm,  321 

fly,  *322 

Scurfy  scale,  73,  *73,  123 
Secondary  parasites,  368 
Seed-beds,  covering  of,  50 
Seed  galls,  jumping,  280 
Sesia  pictipes,  114 

tipuliformis,  145 

Shade  trees,  insects  affecting,  260 
Sheep  bot-fly,  326 

remedies  for,  327 

dipping  of,  for  scab,  331 

gad-fly,  *326 

infested  with  scab,  *332 

scab  mite  of,  330 

tick,  332,  *333 

treatment  of,  333 
Shocks  of  corn  afford  shelter,  *5 
Sight,  sense  of,  13 
SUvanus  surinamensis,  350 
"Silver  fish/'  *15,  300 
SimulidoB,  335 
Simulium  venustum,  311 
Sinuate  pear  borer,  108 
Siphonaptera  order,  22 
Siphonophora,  182 
Sitodrepa  panicea,  298 
Sitotroga  cerealella,  208,  348 
Skippers,  22,  28 
Skunk,  9 

common,  434 
Slug  caterpillar,  106 

on  roses,  259 
Slugs,  259 

Smeared  dagger-moth,  106,  169 
Smell,  sense  of,  13 
Snapping  beetles,  206 
Snowy  tree-cricket,  140,  *141,  169 
eggs  of,  *141 

feeding  on  gland  of  male,  *1 42 
female  ovipositing,  *142 
Soap  solutions,  45 
Sod  land,  6 


INDEX 


451 


Soft  orange  scale,  174 

Song  sparrow,  403 

Southern  June  beetle,  *127,  132 

Sovereign  butterfly,  152 

Sow  bugs,  255 

bait  for,  44 
Spacing  block,  *29 
Sparrow,  European,  405 

poisoning,  406 

shooting,  406 

song,  403 

trapping,  406 
Special  senses,  13 
Species,  24 

Specimens,  relaxing  dried,  36 
Sphinx  drupiferarum,  119 
Sphinx  moths,  *163 

plum-tree,  119 
Spider,  red,  143,  151 
Spiders,  11 

Spilonota  ocellana,  86 
Spiny  currant  caterpillar,  150 
Spiracles,  13 
Spotted  fever  tick,  339,  140 

vine  chafer,  169 
Spray,  56 

pumps,  51 

Sprayer,  three-row,  at  work,  *56 
Sprayers,  types  of,  52 
Spraying,  40,  51 

of  trees,  6 
Spreading,  29 

board,  *30 
Spring  canker  worm,  87 

tails,  14 

Spruce  gall,  *280 
Squash  bug,  241,  *242 

horned,  242 
Squirrel,  red,  434 
Squirrels,  digger,  421 

ground,  421 

losses  from,  4 
Stable  fly,  324 

control  of,  325 
Stalk  borer,  106,  138,  145,  212,  248, 

256 
Stegomyia,  307 

calopus,  305 
Stem  mother,  14 
Sting,  13 

"Stink  bugs,"  152 
Stock,  insect-like  animals  attacking, 

314 

Ktomoxys  calcitrans,  324 
Stone  flies,  16 
Stored  peanuts,  217 


Stored  rice,  enemies  of,  217 

Storing  insects,  37 

Strainers,  57 

Strawberries,  insects  injuring,  133 

Strawberry  crown-borer,  133,  *133 

crown-miner,  134 

insects,    supplementary    list    of, 
138 

leaf-roller,  136,  *136 

root-louse,  134,  *134 

root  worm,  138 

slug,  137 

weevil,  137,  145 
Striped  cucumber  beetle,  237,  *237 

flea-beetle,  235 

gopher,  *422 
Sub-orders,  14 
"Suck-fly,"  219,  *219 
Sucking  forms,  13 

insects,  insecticides  for,  44 
Sugar  beets,  pests  of,  213 

cane,  insects  affecting,  201 

beetle,  202,  *203 
Sulfur,  61 

brown  tortrix,  138 

directions  for  using,  67 

flowers  of,  46 

lime,  45 

Summer  sprays,  72 
Sweeping  for  insects,  27 
Sweet  potato  root-borer,  249 

potatoes,  insects  affecting,  249 
Syrphus  flies,  *365 


Tabanids,  328 

Tabanus  atratus,  329 

Tachina-fly,  red-tailed,  *368 

Tachinidce,  367 

Tanglefoot,  tree,  49 

Tanks  for  field  use,  59 

Tarnished  plant  bug,  84,   *85,   112, 

125,    132,    145,    152, 

246 

false,  112 

Tarred  felt  disks,  50 
paper,  50 

discs,  234 
Tarring  seed,  411 
Tarsal  joints,  two  types  of,  *13 
Tarsus,  13 

Taste,  function  of,  14 
Tegmina,  18 
Telea  polyphemus,  93 
Tenebrio  molitor,  350 
Tenebroides  mauritanicus,  353 


452 


INDEX 


Tent  caterpillar,  78,  123,  127 
Tentless  caterpillar,  80 
Teras  vaccinivorana,  170 
Termes  flavipes,  217 
Termites,  17 
Tern,  black,  404 

common,  *406 
Terrapin  scale,  124 
Tertiary  parasites,  368 
Tetranychus  bimaculatus,  143 

gloveri,  215,  221 
"Texas  fever,"  340 

tick,  control  of,  342 
Thorax,  13 

Thread-bearing  span  worm,  138 
Thrips,  17,  *18 

orange,  182 
Thrips  tabaci,  213 
Thrips  work  on  oranges,  *181 
Thysanoptera  order,  17,  213 
Thysanura  order,  14 
Thysbe  clear-wing,  106,  123 
Tibia,  13 
Tibia,  13 
"Tick  fever,"  340 
Ticks,  11 
Tiger  beetles,  364 

moth,  106 

Timeota  biselliella,  292 
Timothy  insects,  212 

field  of,  6 

Tinea  pellionella,  291 
Tmetocera  ocellana,  98 
Tobacco  dust,  46 

extracts,  46 

insects  attacking,  218 

worm,  Northern,  218 

Southern,  218 

Tomato,  insects  attacking,  248 
Tortoise  beetles,  249 
Touch,  sense  of,  14 
Tower,  home-made,  *55 
Toxic  principle  in  rose  chafer,  156 
Toxoptera  graminum,  189 
Trap  crops,  49 
Trapezonotus  nebulosus,  212 
Tree  bridge-grafted,  *418 

cricket  on  peach  tree,  *126 

crickets,  123,  125,  132,  140,  169 
hatching  of,  *143 
guard,  *417 

killed  by  elm-tree  borer,  *270 

protected  by  wire  screen,  *417 

tanglefoot,  49 
Tree-hopper,  buffalo,  74 
Tribolium  confusum,  310,  349 


Trichogramma  pretiosa,  369 
Trichoptera  order,  15 
Tritoxa  flexa,  *213 
Trochanter,  13 
Troglody tides,  374 

Truck  crops,  insects  affecting,  226 
Trumpet  leaf -miner,  106 
TurdidcR,  374 
Turnip  insects,  212 
Turpentine  bark  beetle,  277 
Tussock  moth,  *270 
Twelve-spotted  Diabrotica,  240,  *241 
Twig  girdler,  282 
Two-horned  tree-hopper,  1 06 
Tyloderma  fr agarics,  133 
Typhlocyba,  164 

comes,  164 

vitis,  164 

vulnerata,  164 
Typhoid  fly,  301 
Typical  insect,  parts  of,  12 
Tyrannidce,  374 


Unicorn  prominent,  106,  123 


Vagabond  gall  louse,  271 

Varied  thrush,  375 

Varieties,  24 

Veery,  377 

Vegetable   garden,    insects   affecting, 


Vermorel  nozzle,  double,  58 
Viceroy,  123 
VireonidoB,  374 
Virginia  cardinal,  388 
creeper,  167 

W 

Walking  stick,  18,  *19 
Walnut  caterpillar,  282 
Warble  flies,  318 

control  of,  319 
Warble-fly,  *320 
Warble,  ox,  *319 
Warbler,  blackburnian,  385 

chestnut-sided,  383 

myrtle,  382 

yellow-rumped,  382 
"Warbles,"  318 

Wash  for  tree-trunks  and  limbs,  51 
Watchmaker's  glass,  *32 
Water  boatman,  28 

hot,  47 
Wavy-striped  flea  beetle,  138 


INDEX 


453 


Weasel,  9,  434 

Weasels,  9 

Weedy  fence  row,  *6 

Weevil,  New  York,  78 

Well-marked  cut-worm,  97 

moth,  152 

Western  corn-root  worm,  *204 
Wheat  crop,  losses  in,  1 

head  army  worm,  190,  *191 

insects,  185 

stem  maggot,  187,  *188 
Whippoorwill,  393,  *394 
Whirligig-beetles,  28 
White  ants,  17 
"White  blast,"  217 
White  fly,  255 

grubs,  135,  211,  364 
in  lawn,  257 

miller,  160 

peach  scale,  127 

pine  weevil,  277 

scale,  174,  *254 

common,  254 

White-breasted  nuthatch,  381 
White-lined  morning  sphinx,  169 

sphinx,  162 
White-marked  spider  beetle,  299 

tussock  caterpillar,  *270 

moth,  123,  269,  *270,  *271, 

272,  369 

Wild  cherry  leaf -miner,  106 
Willow  borer,  mottled,  274 

saw-fly,  273,  *273 

slug,  yellow  spotted,  274 
Wilson  thrush,  *379 
WTing  covers,  18 
Wire  worm,  138,  206,  *206,  *207 


Wood  lice,  255 

thrush,  377,  *378 
ticks,  312 

Woodchuck,  430,  *431 
Woodpecker,  downy,  396 

golden-winged,  403 
Woolly  aphis,  77 

on  branch  of  young  apple, 

*76 

root-form,  *77 
bear  caterpillar,  258 
louse,  77 

Wormy  windfalls,  9 
Wren,  381 


Xyleborus  dispar,  110 
pyri,  116 


Yellow  cranberry  worm,  *170 

fever  mosquito,  305 

hammer,  403,  *405 

meal  worm,  350,  *351 

scale,  173 

Yellow-bear,  149,  160,  *160 
Yellow-bellied  sapsucker,  397 
Yellow-necked  apple  tree  caterpillar, 

90,  *91 

Yellow  rumped  warbler,  382 
Ypsolophus  ligulellus,  101 


Zebra  caterpillar,  *230 

of  cabbage,  106 
Zenoleum,  334 
Zophodia  grossularice,  152 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  I*AST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


5m-8,'26 


40556-7 


.Vashburn. 


.   L. 


3B931 


Injuriou 


3  iiisectsr  and 


useful  birds 


c.2 


.   Educ. 


4055( 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  UBRARY 


